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Pada Vichara (पदविचारः) (view source)

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{{ToBeEdited}}Pada Vichara (Samskrit: पदविचारः) deals with Pada (पदम्) or word. A word is a group of varnas or letters arranged in a certain fixed order giving a certain meaning. The order of the letters in a word cannot be changed or reversed in any way without altering its meaning.<ref name=":7">Chatterjee. Satischandra, (1950 Second Edition) ''The Nyaya Theory of Knowledge, A Critical Study of Some Problems of Login and Metaphysics''. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. (Pages 322 - 335)</ref> Thus what distinguishes a word from other sounds is its possession of meaning.

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{{ToBeEdited}}Pada Vichara (Samskrit: पदविचारः) deals with the discussion about Pada (पदम्) or word. A word is a group of varnas or letters arranged in a certain fixed order giving a certain meaning. The order of the letters in a word cannot be changed or reversed in any way without altering its meaning.<ref name=":7">Chatterjee. Satischandra, (1950 Second Edition) ''The Nyaya Theory of Knowledge, A Critical Study of Some Problems of Login and Metaphysics''. Calcutta: University of Calcutta. (Pages 322 - 335)</ref> Thus what distinguishes a word from other sounds is its possession of a meaning.

Words are used for naming, even in everyday life, because of their universal applicability and their convenience owing to simplicity as per Nirukta<ref name=":0">Raja, Kunjunni K. (1977 Reprint) ''Indian Theories of Meaning.'' Madras: The Adyar Library and Research Centre. </ref><blockquote>संज्ञाकरणं व्यवहारार्थं लोके । तेषां मनुष्यवत् व्याप्तिमत्त्वात् तु शब्दस्याणीयस्त्वात्च शब्देन शब्दानाम् इतरेतरोपदेशः । (Niru. Shas. 1.2)<ref>Nirukta Shastra ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4% Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>Bhartrhari refers to this view and says that Vartaksha also held the theory that it is only the sentence that is regularly present in the mind of the hearer.<ref name=":7" />

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Now, coming to what is pada, here we place a compilation of what lakshanas various scholars used to define a pada. It is generally accepted that Pada is a group of varnas and has a meaning.

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In '''Nyaya Sutras''', Gautama defines it as ते विभक्त्यन्ताः पदम् ।।६०।। {पदलक्षणसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 2.2.60)<ref name=":6">Nyaya Sutras of Gautama ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A Adhyaya 2])</ref> meaning these same (letters) when ending in ~~an affix~~ (vibhakti anta) are called Pada (word).<ref>Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) ''Gautama's Nyayasutras (With Vatsyayana Bhashya) Translated into English with revised notes.'' Poona: Oriental Book Agency (Page 241)</ref>

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In '''Nyaya Sutras''', Gautama defines it as ते विभक्त्यन्ताः पदम् ।।६०।। {पदलक्षणसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 2.2.60)<ref name=":6">Nyaya Sutras of Gautama ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A Adhyaya 2])</ref> meaning these same (letters) when ending in a suffix (vibhakti anta) are called Pada (word). <ref>Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) ''Gautama's Nyayasutras (With Vatsyayana Bhashya) Translated into English with revised notes.'' Poona: Oriental Book Agency (Page 241)</ref>

In '''Tarkabhasha''' of Shri Keshav Mishra, padam (word) is defined as पदं च वर्णसमूहः । Padam (word) is a collection of varnas (letters).

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** '''वाचकशब्दः ॥ Vachakas''' : Sanketa or direct relation between word and its meaning is eternal, natural, established by divine order and is unchanging is called '''Sakti''' or significative potency of the word. Example, relation between the word Jar and object Jar is direct and eternal.

** '''पारिभाषकशब्दः ॥ Paaribhashikas''' : Sanketa or direct relation between word and its meaning is not eternal; it is conventional, established by technical usage of mankind and is changing in different contexts by the will of authority defining that "such and such word stands for this" is called '''Paribhasha'''. Example, word 'article' in grammar, 'premise' in logic, 'category' in philosophy.

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* '''लक्षणा ~~॥Lakshana~~''': Lakshana is the indirect or implied meaning in which we should understand a word when its direct or primary meaning is inconsistent with other words or the context. Thus such a Lakshana word means an object when it is directly related to some other aspect of the object other than its primary meaning. Thus the secondary meaning is suggested through its association with the primary meaning. Example, take the expression गङ्गायां घोषः । the hut is ''on Ganga''. As per the primary meaning, ''the hut is located on the current of water of river Ganga'', which is not a possibility as a hut cannot be constructed in flowing water. So we consider not its primary meaning ''the current of water of river'' but the secondary meaning namely ''the bank of the river Ganga''. Thus we see that the secondary meaning, called '''Lakshana''', गङ्गातटे घोषः । the hut is on the banks of Ganga, has an indirect meaningful relationship with Ganga. There are three kinds of Lakshana

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* '''लक्षणा ॥ Lakshana''': Lakshana is the indirect or implied meaning in which we should understand a word when its direct or primary meaning is inconsistent with other words or the context. Thus such a Lakshana word means an object when it is directly related to some other aspect of the object other than its primary meaning. Thus the secondary meaning is suggested through its association with the primary meaning. Example, take the expression गङ्गायां घोषः । the hut is ''on Ganga''. As per the primary meaning, ''the hut is located on the current of water of river Ganga'', which is not a possibility as a hut cannot be constructed in flowing water. So we consider not its primary meaning ''the current of water of river'' but the secondary meaning namely ''the bank of the river Ganga''. Thus we see that the secondary meaning, called '''Lakshana''', गङ्गातटे घोषः । the hut is on the banks of Ganga, has an indirect meaningful relationship with Ganga. There are three kinds of Lakshana

*# '''जहत्स्वार्थलक्षणा (Jahatsvartha)''' when the primary meaning (स्वार्था = शक्यार्थः) gives place to another meaning connected to it (no part of the primary meaning is retained), e.g., गङ्गायां घोषः । the hut is ''on river Ganga'' is replaced by the hut is ''on the banks of Ganga.'' मञ्चाः क्रोशन्ति । the ''cots'' are crying, the शक्यार्थः = cot is given up as it is not capable of crying and the word is taken to imply ''children'' lying in those cots.

*# '''अजहत्स्वार्थलक्षणा (Ajahatsvartha)''' is said to happen when a word while retaining the शक्यार्थः (the primary meaning) implies something more than that and connected to it (शक्यार्थः) in some form, e.g., काकेभ्यः दधि रक्ष्यताम् or छत्रिणो यान्ति. In the former काकेभ्यः retains its meaning of crow and implies all other birds also from whom the curd has to be protected. In the latter case those who hold umbrellas adn those who do not are both implied by the word छत्रिन् as they all go in a crowd.

*# '''जहदजहत्स्वार्थलक्षणा (Jahadajahatsvartha)''' happens where some part of the शक्यार्थः or primary meaning is retained and the other part is discarded, (जहत् = discarding and अजहत् = retaining) e.g., सोऽयं चैत्रः - the pronoun सः denotes the man who was seen in the past time and अयं denotes the man in front at the present time. To maintain the identity of the two the adjectival position "seen in the past time" is discarded and the substantive "Chaitra (man)" alone is retained.

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* '''व्यञ्जना ॥''' '''Vyanjana''' : This stands for such meanings of words which are neither directly or indirectly related to them, but are only suggested by them. Thus the sentence गङ्गायां घोषः । the house is ''on Ganga'' is taken to mean that the house has the suggested qualities of Coolness (शीतलत्वम्) and Sacredness (पावनत्वम्) that is associated with the river Ganga.

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* '''व्यञ्जना ॥''' '''Vyanjana''' : This stands for such meanings of words which are neither directly or indirectly related to them, but are only suggested by them. Thus the sentence गङ्गायां घोषः । the house is ''on Ganga'' is taken to mean that the house has the suggested qualities of Coolness (शीतलत्वम्) and Sacredness (पावनत्वम्) that is associated with the river Ganga. This has mainly two varieties:

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*# शाब्दी (Shabdii) that arising directly from the word itself

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*# आर्थी (Aarthi) that arising from the meaning

Naiyayikas admit only Sanketa and Lakshana kinds of meanings of words, they include Vyanjana within Sakti and Lakshana. They are also different from Vedantins who admit that not only words, sentences also may have secondary meanings or Lakshana. The Alamkarikas consider the third kind of meaning namely Vyanjana. The Vyangyartha or suggested meaning of a word arises from its primary and secondary meanings and is not separate from them according to Naiyayikas. The alamkarikas however differ from Naiyayika views. Thus we have four kinds of terms namely

* Abhidhaa/Vachaka/Mukhyartha/Sakyartha denotes the primary meaning of a word

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Each of these schools look at the denotative force of a word from a different angle and each would appear to be correct in its own way.

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For example when घटमानय is being uttered the intention is that the particular entity jar (घटव्यक्तिः) is to be brought and not the class (जातिः) of jars (घटत्वम्) as the capacity for being acted upon (अर्थक्रियाकारित्वम्) exists only in the व्यक्तिः। On observing this action, a person who does not know what a घट denotes previously assumes that - that word represents such a thing. This assumption is confirmed when he next observes the jar being removed. From this it must be admitted that the denotation of the word घट is primarily ascertained in the घटव्यक्तिः as otherwise the hearer would not bring or remove the particular object. But then it may be argued that शक्तिः is grasped only on one particular व्यक्तिः and there are innumerable घटव्यक्ति-s in which शक्तिः is not grasped. This objection would appear to be valid on the face of it; but is contrary to ordinary experience. When one has ascertained शक्तिः on a particular घटव्यक्तिः he sizes up the general shape and form of a घट as a कम्बुग्रीवादिमद्वस्तुः and through it he conceives the general notion, the घटत्वम् underlying all such jars. In fact घटत्वम् is nothing but कम्बुग्रीवादिमत्वम् showing all the elements that constitute the shape of the object, such as a narrow neck, bulging belly, rounded bottom, etc. घटत्वम् is the abstract formless notion while कम्बुग्रीवादिमत्वम् is the same notion in concrete form which is called आकृतिविशेषः। It is this आकृतिविशेषः which enables one to distinguish it from other things—अतद्व्यावृत्तिः। If one has understood what is meant by the word घट, or in other words, if one has grasped the denotative force of घट, it means that he has a definite conception of

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For example when घटमानय is being uttered the intention is that the particular entity jar (घटव्यक्तिः) is to be brought and not the class (जातिः) of jars (घटत्वम्) as the capacity for being acted upon (अर्थक्रियाकारित्वम्) exists only in the व्यक्तिः। On observing this action, a person who does not know what a घट denotes previously assumes that - that word represents such a thing. This assumption is confirmed when he next observes the jar being removed. From this it must be admitted that the denotation of the word घट is primarily ascertained in the घटव्यक्तिः as otherwise the hearer would not bring or remove the particular object. But then it may be argued that शक्तिः is grasped only on one particular व्यक्तिः and there are innumerable घटव्यक्ति-s in which शक्तिः is not grasped. This objection would appear to be valid on the face of it; but is contrary to ordinary experience. When one has ascertained शक्तिः on a particular घटव्यक्तिः he sizes up the general shape and form of a घट as a कम्बुग्रीवादिमद्वस्तुः and through it he conceives the general notion, the घटत्वम् underlying all such jars. In fact घटत्वम् is nothing but kambugrivadimatvam (कम्बुग्रीवादिमत्वम्) showing all the elements that constitute the shape of the object, such as a narrow neck, bulging belly, rounded bottom, etc. घटत्वम् is the abstract formless notion while कम्बुग्रीवादिमत्वम् is the same notion in concrete form which is called आकृतिविशेषः। It is this आकृतिविशेषः which enables one to distinguish it from other things—अतद्व्यावृत्तिः। If one has understood what is meant by the word घट, or in other words, if one has grasped the denotative force of घट, it means that he has a definite conception of

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# the घटव्यक्तिः

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# the Ghatavypti (घटव्यक्तिः)

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# the general notion घटत्वम्

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# the general notion Ghatatvam (घटत्वम्)

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# its peculiar shape — आकृतिविशेषः — as a कम्बुग्रीवादिमद्वस्तुः।

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# its peculiar shape — Akrti-visesha (आकृतिविशेषः) — as a कम्बुग्रीवादिमद्वस्तुः।

In his Nyayasutras, Gautama wants to convey in जात्याकृतिव्यक्तयस्तु पदार्थः (1-2-68)<ref name=":6" /> sutra that the meaning of a word rests on all the three, जातिः, आकृतिः and व्यक्तिः. The three notions जातिः, आकृतिः and व्यक्तिः are but different phases of one and the same thing serving distinct functions in logical explanation and as such inseparable from one another.<ref name=":3" />

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