Pada Vichara (पदविचारः)

Pada Vichara (Samskrit: पदविचारः) deals with the discussion about Pada (पदम्) or word. A word is a group of varnas or letters arranged in a certain fixed order giving a certain meaning. The order of the letters in a word cannot be changed or reversed in any way without altering its meaning. Thus what distinguishes a word from other sounds is its possession of a meaning.

Words are used for naming, even in everyday life, because of their universal applicability and their convenience owing to simplicity as per Nirukta

संज्ञाकरणं व्यवहारार्थं लोके । तेषां मनुष्यवत् व्याप्तिमत्त्वात् तु शब्दस्याणीयस्त्वात्च शब्देन शब्दानाम् इतरेतरोपदेशः । (Niru. Shas. 1.2)

Bhartrhari refers to this view and says that Vartaksha also held the theory that it is only the sentence that is regularly present in the mind of the hearer.

पदलक्षणम् ॥ Characteristics of Word

Now, coming to what is pada, here we place a compilation of what lakshanas various scholars used to define a pada. It is generally accepted that Pada is a group of varnas and has a meaning.

In Nyaya Sutras, Gautama defines it as ते विभक्त्यन्ताः पदम् ।।६०।। {पदलक्षणसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 2.2.60) meaning these same (letters) when ending in a suffix (vibhakti anta) are called Pada (word).

In Tarkabhasha of Shri Keshav Mishra, padam (word) is defined as पदं च वर्णसमूहः । Padam (word) is a collection of varnas (letters).

In Tattvachintamani, Gangesa also affirms वर्णसमूहः पदं । that Pada is a collection of varnas.

In Tarksamgraha, Annambhatta describes शक्तं पदम्। अस्मात्पदात् अयमर्थो बोद्धव्य इतीश्वरसङ्केतः शक्तिः॥१॥ (Tark. Samg. 4.1)

A word is that which has significative potency (Sakti). "From this word, this concept should be known - as per the will of Ishvara" to this effect (ईश्वरसङ्केतः) is called Sakti (significative potency).

In Ashtadhyayi, Panini describes सुप्तिङ्गन्तं पदम्। (1.4.15), thus we see a grammatical lakshana for Pada as that which has the case endings of सुप् and तिङ्ग।

While a letter is a significant sound, a word is a symbolic sound of a higher order. A varna signifies only a part of the alphabet but the fixed set of varnas in a padam stand for some thing or some idea. Padas are similar to varnas in their ability to be spoken or written and thus are the objects of auditory or visual perception. It should be noted that while varnas are part of alphabet and independent, a word is not a mere collection or aggregation of varnas but a definite whole of letters or syllables having a fixed sequence of arrangement within the Padam. It is the unity of the parts (syllables) forming an object (word) of single cognition. Summarizing the qualities of words as follows

1. It consists of varnas in a fixed order
2. Its essential nature lies in its meaning
3. Meaning of the word and object it signifies have a relationship
4. Different relationships (of word and object) gives different meanings of a particular word.

पदस्य अर्थः ॥ Meanings of Words

According to Indian thought we find two main approaches to the study of the aspect of अर्थः used in the sense of "meaning": one method in which the word is considered as an autonomous fundamental linguistic unit of thought and sense, language studies are made on the basis of words; second method where the sentence is considered as the concatenation of words and cognition of sentence-meaning (shabdabodha) becomes the basis of language studies. Discussed primarily by the Naiyayikas, in the Nyayasutras, is the nature of individual words only; the factors necessary for understanding of a sentence are found only in later Nyaya-Vaiseshika words. Vaiyakaranas and Niruktakara also were mainly concerned with words and their forms. It is only in Mimamasa where a detailed study of sentences was undertaken to a great extent.

It was Bhartrhari who advocated that the fundamental linguistic unit is the sentence. He defines the sentence as a 'single integral symbol' which is revealed by the individual letters and the words that comprise it. The meaning is conveyed by this vakyasphota, the sentence considered as an indivisible and integral linguistic symbol.

Logically a word is a sound that bears a certain meaning. A word may have different meanings according to the various ways in which it is related to the object. On the whole we see at least four different kinds of meaning of a word as per Naiyayikas and Alamkarikas. Many commentaries of Nyaya have explained various aspects of dhvani, shabda, pada and vakya. In this article, Mahabhashya, the commentaries of Sabdasakti-Prakashika of Jagadisa Tarkalankara and Siddhanta Muktavali by Visvanatha Panchanana have been referred to present different concepts of Pada.

शब्दवृत्तयः ॥ Shabdavrttis (Functions of Words)

Shabdavrtti or the significative functions for a word explains how the words uttered by one person (speaker) denote the desired meaning in the listener. While Naiyayikas accept two functions (Abidha and Lakshana), the Alamkarikas accept a third vrtti, namely, Vyanjana or implied meaning of a word. The relation between a word and the its meaning (पदपदार्थयोस्सम्बन्धः) is called Shakti, described in below in Siddhanta Muktavali.

शक्तिश्च पदेन सह पदार्थस्य सम्बन्ध:। सा चाऽस्माच्छब्दादयमर्थो बोद्धव्य इतीश्वरेच्छारूप:। (Sidd. Mukt. Shabdakhanda)

Shakti or the inherent potency of a word describes that - from this sabda this meaning has to be understood as per divine will'. It is eternal and unchanging.

• सङ्केता/अभिधा/शक्यार्थः ॥ Sanketa/Abhidha/Shakyartha : Sanketa is the direct relation between a word and its meaning, such that the knowledge of the word leads immediately to the knowledge of its relation to the meaning. This is the first and primary function which can be translated as the denotative force. It is an established convention that such and such a word denotes such and such a thing, as गौः, धटः, अश्वः etc. The meanings of these words are handed down to us from time immemorial and is attributed to divine order. It is of the following two ways
  • वाचकशब्दः ॥ Vachakas : Sanketa or direct relation between word and its meaning is eternal, natural, established by divine order and is unchanging is called Sakti or significative potency of the word. Example, relation between the word Jar and object Jar is direct and eternal.
  • पारिभाषकशब्दः ॥ Paaribhashikas : Sanketa or direct relation between word and its meaning is not eternal; it is conventional, established by technical usage of mankind and is changing in different contexts by the will of authority defining that "such and such word stands for this" is called Paribhasha. Example, word 'article' in grammar, 'premise' in logic, 'category' in philosophy.
• लक्षणा ॥ Lakshana: Lakshana is the indirect or implied meaning in which we should understand a word when its direct or primary meaning is inconsistent with other words or the context. Thus such a Lakshana word means an object when it is directly related to some other aspect of the object other than its primary meaning. Thus the secondary meaning is suggested through its association with the primary meaning. Example, take the expression गङ्गायां घोषः । the hut is on Ganga. As per the primary meaning, the hut is located on the current of water of river Ganga, which is not a possibility as a hut cannot be constructed in flowing water. So we consider not its primary meaning the current of water of river but the secondary meaning namely the bank of the river Ganga. Thus we see that the secondary meaning, called Lakshana, गङ्गातटे घोषः । the hut is on the banks of Ganga, has an indirect meaningful relationship with Ganga. There are three kinds of Lakshana
  1. जहत्स्वार्थलक्षणा (Jahatsvartha) when the primary meaning (स्वार्था = शक्यार्थः) gives place to another meaning connected to it (no part of the primary meaning is retained), e.g., गङ्गायां घोषः । the hut is on river Ganga is replaced by the hut is on the banks of Ganga. मञ्चाः क्रोशन्ति । the cots are crying, the शक्यार्थः = cot is given up as it is not capable of crying and the word is taken to imply children lying in those cots.
  2. अजहत्स्वार्थलक्षणा (Ajahatsvartha) is said to happen when a word while retaining the शक्यार्थः (the primary meaning) implies something more than that and connected to it (शक्यार्थः) in some form, e.g., काकेभ्यः दधि रक्ष्यताम् or छत्रिणो यान्ति. In the former काकेभ्यः retains its meaning of crow and implies all other birds also from whom the curd has to be protected. In the latter case those who hold umbrellas adn those who do not are both implied by the word छत्रिन् as they all go in a crowd.
  3. जहदजहत्स्वार्थलक्षणा (Jahadajahatsvartha) happens where some part of the शक्यार्थः or primary meaning is retained and the other part is discarded, (जहत् = discarding and अजहत् = retaining) e.g., सोऽयं चैत्रः - the pronoun सः denotes the man who was seen in the past time and अयं denotes the man in front at the present time. To maintain the identity of the two the adjectival position "seen in the past time" is discarded and the substantive "Chaitra (man)" alone is retained.
• व्यञ्जना ॥ Vyanjana : This stands for such meanings of words which are neither directly or indirectly related to them, but are only suggested by them. Thus the sentence गङ्गायां घोषः । the house is on Ganga is taken to mean that the house has the suggested qualities of Coolness (शीतलत्वम्) and Sacredness (पावनत्वम्) that is associated with the river Ganga. This has mainly two varieties:
  1. शाब्दी (Shabdii) that arising directly from the word itself
  2. आर्थी (Aarthi) that arising from the meaning

Naiyayikas admit only Sanketa and Lakshana kinds of meanings of words, they include Vyanjana within Sakti and Lakshana. They are also different from Vedantins who admit that not only words, sentences also may have secondary meanings or Lakshana. The Alamkarikas consider the third kind of meaning namely Vyanjana. The Vyangyartha or suggested meaning of a word arises from its primary and secondary meanings and is not separate from them according to Naiyayikas. The alamkarikas however differ from Naiyayika views.

• तात्पर्यः ॥ Tatparya : Tatparya conveys the speakers intent to express a unified sentence-meaning. While Abhidha conveys individual meaning of words in a sentence, by Tatparyashakti conveys the syntactic relation of the words.

Thus we have the following kinds of Shabdavrttis discussed in various texts

• Abhidhaa/Vachaka/Mukhyartha/Sakyartha denotes the primary meaning of a word
• Paaribhaashika padas denote the technical meaning of a word
• Lakshana indicates the secondary meaning of a word
• Vyanjana denotes the suggested or implied meaning
• Tatparya denotes the sentence meaning

शक्तिग्रहोपायनिरूपणम् ॥ Knowing the Meanings of Words

Now, that classification of meanings is understood, the next question to be answered is how do we grasp the meanings of words (शक्तिग्रह:)? How does a child understand that "this word means this"? According to Vishvanatha Panchanana Bhatt, Saktigraha or grasping the significative meaning of a word is by the following ways

शक्तिग्रहं व्याकरणोपमानकोशाप्तवाक्याद्व्यवहारतश्च। वाक्यस्य शेषाद्विवृतेर्वदन्ति सान्निध्यतस्सिद्धपदस्य वृद्धाः ॥ (Sidd. Mukt. Shabdakhanda)

The wise elderly say that there are different ways in which the knowledge of denotative meaning of a word is grasped, as following

1. व्याकरणत् ॥ From Vyakarana : धातुप्रकृतिप्रत्ययादीनां शक्तिग्रहो व्याकरणाद्भवति। From the vyakarana aspects such as Dhatu (verbal roots), Prakrti and Pratyaya (suffixes) the meaning of the word is apprehended. Ex: गम् = to go, गच्छति = goes (present tense); गन्तृ = one who goes; गतिः = gait; गम् with आ = to come
2. उपमानात् ॥ From Upamana: उपमानाद्यथा शक्तिग्रहः..। Through comparisons (upamanas) the meaning of the word is apprehended.
3. कोशद् ॥ From Kosha : Through Dictionaries the meaning of the words are learnt.
4. आप्तवाक्याद् ॥ From Aptavakya: From the different usages of words by trustworthy persons, as from the statement such as यथा कोकिल: पिकशब्दवाच्य इत्यादिशब्दात् । the word 'pika' signifies a cuckoo.
5. व्यवहाराद् ॥ From Usage : From the common worldly usage also the meaning is apprehended. For instance, an elderly person giving directions says, 'bring the jar,' and hearing this another person brings a jar. A boy watching this concludes that the act of bringing a jar is the result of the words uttered by the elderly person. From the expressions such as, 'remove the jar,' and 'bring the cow,' he understands the process of inclusion and exclusion of functions.
6. वाक्यशेषाद् ॥ From Context: From contextual situation the meaning of the word can be grasped. Example as in the vaidika sentence यवमयश्चरूर्भवति where the denotation of यव (Yava) is grasped from the words that follow यदान्या ओषधयोम्लायन्ते तथैते मोदमानास्तिष्ठन्ति।
7. विवृतेः ॥ From Explanation: From commentaries or bhashyas the meaning is apprehended, example लक्षणं नामाऽसाधारणधर्मः यथा गोः सास्नादिमत्वम्
8. सिद्धपदस्य सन्निधेः ॥ From Proximity to known word: Contiguity with known words or word, as in इह सहकारतरौ पिकः कूजति पञ्चमम् the words सहकारतरु and पञ्चम whose meanings are known determine that of पिकः as the cuckoo.

To this list the Alamkarikas add gestures and signs by hands eyes, etc. Contextual usage is of many kinds and Synonymous words also lend their might in apprehending a word's meaning. Sometimes where there is a contradiction it is discarded and alternate ways are tried.

That there are so many different ways of knowing the meanings of words proves that the relation between words and their meanings is not a natural but a conventional relation.

शक्तश्चतुर्विधम् ॥ Kinds of Shakti

Words are divided into four kinds according to the different ways in which their meaning is determined from grammatical or conventional methods or from a combination of both. A word denotes its meaning and it is of four kinds.

शक्तं पदम्। तच्चतुर्विधम्। क्वचिद्यौगिकं, क्वचिद्रूढं, क्वचिद्योगरूढं क्वचिद्यौगिकरूढम्। (Sidd. Mukt. Shabdakhanda)

Sometimes it is derivative (यौगिकम् । yaugikam) sometimes conventional (रूढम् । rūḍham) sometimes derivatively conventional (योगरूढम् । yogarūḍham) and sometimes both derivative and conventional (यौगिकरूढम् । yaugikarūḍham).

योगः = अवयवशक्तिः : A word is called derivative (यौगिकशब्दः । yaugikashabda) when its meaning is solely determined by those of its component parts or avayavas (यत्राऽवयवार्थ एव बुद्ध्यते) such as root and the prefix or suffix (the dhatu and upasargas or pratyayas), as in example Adhyapaka (अध्यापकः) means one who teaches, it is composed of अधि (preposition) + इ (Dhatu) + णिच् + कर्तरिप्रत्यय.

रूढि = समुदायशक्तिः : A word is called conventional (रूढिशब्दः । rūḍhishabda) when its meaning is determined independently by collective denotation (समुदायशक्तिमात्रेण बुद्ध्यते), irrespective of the meaning given by the component parts. Example, words such as गो-मण्डला, here grammatically derived meaning of गो । Go is given as one who goes (Gacchati) but that is excluded and instead is denoted as Cow (independent of the derived grammatical meaning). Mandala means circle. गजः = an elephant and not गर्जतीति गजः from etymology.

A word is called derivatively conventional (योगरूढम् । yogarūḍham) when its meaning is determined by component parts or avayavas but restricted by convention to a particular thing within that meaning (अवयवशक्तिविषये समुदायशक्तिरप्यस्ति). Example, words such as पङ्कजा (lotus) where by avayava sakti it reflects something that grows in the mud and in that sense it may mean lotus, lily, frog, weed or any such thing; but restricted by samudaya sakti it means lotus flower only. मधुकरः (bee) हस्तिन् (elephant) are other examples. Normally one should not use such words in their etymological sense as the rule योगाद्रूढिर्बलीयसी is applied to them, thus a conventional usage gains precedence over the etymological usage.

A word is called derivative and conventional (यौगिकरूढम् । yaugikarūḍham) when its meaning is determined independent of each other, by both Yaugika and Rudha meanings (यौगिकार्थरूढ्यर्थयो: स्वातन्त्र्येण बोध:). In this case convention does not restrict the sense to one particular thing as in previous case. Example, the words such as स्वयम्भू । Svayambhu which means one that emerges by itself and also Brahma; उद्भिदा । Udbhida It denotes that which sprouts such as the trees and shrubs, as also a particular kind of yaaga.

Multiple Meanings

According to the Mimamsakas the relation between shabda and artha (the word and its meaning) must be accepted as invariable and constant as far as possible. Thus the binary relationship requires a word to have only one sense and a sense to have only one word to denote it. This is generally by and far accepted in the language constructs and many earlier siddhantas were focused on explaining the primary meaning of word. However, in many instances in Samskrit language (as well as other languages) we come across the presence of a one-for-many concept both in sense and the word it denotes. Multiple meanings is an important feature of speech and language and has attracted significant attention of scholars in India even from ancient times. We find two main categories of this multiple meaning instances

1. नानार्थशब्दाः Homonyms: One word having various senses
2. पर्थायशब्दाः Synonyms: One sense denoted by many words

Patanjali has drawn attention to the concept that there are many words with same sense; like for Indra, Shakra, Puruhuta and Purandara apply as synonyms. Again one and same word is also found to have different senses, for example, aksha (means the "die" in gambling as well as "axle"), pada, masha are seen in his Mahabhashya.

बहवो हि शब्दा एकार्था भवन्ति । तद्यथा--इन्द्रः शक्रः पुरुहूतः पुरन्दरः । कन्दुः कोष्ठः कुसूल इति । एकश्च शब्दो बह्वर्थः । तद्यथा--अक्षाः पादा माषा इति ।(Mahabhashya under Panini Sutra 1.3.1)

Yaska's explanation in this regard may be taken as one of the explanations for the presence of synonyms and homonyms in a language. According to him all nouns are derived from verbal roots and different etymologies are offered for a single word when its meaning becomes different.

In case of the nanartha shabdas (homonyms) or in homophones there is a possibility of doubt as to the exact meaning intended. When a word denotes several primary meanings or in the case of ambiguous expressions, one needsArthaviveka (अर्थविवेकः) or the ability to discern the meaning based on certain factors, to determine the exact meaning that fits in the given context. It is an important concept used especially in areas such as poetics. In Brhddevata, the rules regarding the meaning of a Vedic mantra, as well as that of an ordinary sentence are said to be governed by at least six factors. Bhartrhari in his Vakyapadiyam describes a list of conditions that serve to bring out the intended meaning of that particular word in an ambiguous expression. The deciding factors of meaning include Association, Dissociation, Company etc.

पदजातानि ॥ Word Categories

Four-Fold Classification

Four-fold classification of words (चत्वारी पदजातानि) is evident in many Pre-Panian texts. The four kinds of words include

1. नाम ॥ Nama - Nouns
2. आख्यातम् ॥ Akhyata - Verbs
3. उपसर्गः ॥ Upasarga - Prefix
4. निपातम् ॥ Nipata - Filler (Padapurana)

The first clear reference to the four-fold division of words is seen in the Rigveda mantras and the concept has been summarised aptly by Maharshi Patanjali, the Mahabhashyakara. For example, in the following Rk

चत्वारि वाक्परिमिता पदानि तानि विदुर्ब्राह्मणा ये मनीषिणः ।....॥४५॥ (Rig. Veda. 1.164.45)

Patanjali's Bhashya for the above mantra is as below

चत्वारि वाक्परिमिता पदानि - चत्वारि पदजातानि, नामाख्यातोपसर्गनिपातश्च । ...

Summary: He explains the expression चत्वारि (four), refers to four kinds of speech-sound; they being noun, verb, upasarga and nipata. They are seen by manishins (मनीषिणः who are those who have controlled their mind). Further it is explained that the four padas (चत्वारि पदानि) are variously interpreted by different thinkers

• Rshis consider them as pranava and the three vyahrtis
• Vaiyakaranas, consider them as noun, verb, upsarga and nipatas
• Yajnikas consider them as mantra, kalpa, brahmana and vyavahariki (that which is in vogue)
• Nairuktas consider them as Rk, Yajus, Saman and vyavahariki (that which is in vogue)
• Mantrikas think that the four are Para, Pashyanti, Madhyama and Vaikhari kinds of Vak

Prior to Panini the four-fold divisions of padas were also noted in Vajasaneya Pratisakhya of Sakatayana and Nirukta of Yaska. According to Yaska

तत् यानि चत्वारि पदजातानि औपमन्यवः । सत्त्वप्रधानानि नामानि । अदः इति भावप्रधाने भवतः पूर्वापरीभूतं भावम् आख्यातेन आचष्टे । (Niru. 1.1)

Summary: Brief information about the Yaska's explanation of the four-fold categorization of word is as follows.

1. Nama is that kind of word where the concrete form of a thing or sattva is considered to be important. Ex., गौरश्वः पुरुषो हस्तीति । cow, horse, man and elephant, is nama or name of a thing.
2. Akhyata is that kind of word where the meaning of the verb (Bhava) is considered to be predominant such as in व्रजति ( walks) पचति (cooks).
3. Upasargas are the prefixes such as pra, para, apa, sam, nis, nir, dur etc., which cannot by themselves express any meaning but if not added before nama and akhyata would affect the meaning of the dhatu. Ex., आहार (आ upsarga added to हृँ dhatu) विहार (वि upsarga added to हृँ dhatu) प्रहार ( प्र upsarga) संहार (सं upasarga) etc. Here ahara means food, samhara means to kill, vihara means to travel etc.
4. Nipatas are those which are employed in the sense of more or less. Nipatas according to Sakatayana is used as a filler for the adjustment of meter in prosody. Ex., api is used in the sense of similar, and also as a filler, na is used in the sense of negation etc.

In his Tantravartika (1.3.33), Kumarilabhatta summarizes the opinion of Yaska, stressing on the Nama and Akhyata as the agents of expression. He states that there will be confusion in the meanings of Nipata and Upasarga, which are suggestive of the meaning of their qualified rather than being direct agents of expression.

चतुष्टयी शब्दानां प्रवृत्ति:॥ Four-Fold Behaviour of Words

Pāṇini looked at the gamut of śabdas from four angles - causes of their behavior.

जाति: ॥ Jāti

The unique, inherent, single and perennial phenomenon that is there in a thing and it is useful in separating a thing from the rest of the things in the universe- gotvam (cowness). A cow is separated by jāti, cowness, from the rest of the things in the universe. Similarly, vṛkṣatvam (treeness), strītvam (womanhood) etc.

गुण:॥ Guṇa

The word that denotes a quality- sthūlaḥ (stout), kṛśaḥ (lean) etc.

क्रिया॥ Kriyā

The word that denotes an action- pacati (cooking), paṭhati (reading) etc. It may be noted that kriyā denotes the kāraka and samkhyā (besides tense and mood).

In fact, kriyā is only one- caitramaitraviṣṇumitrāḥ gacchanti (caitra, maitra and viṣṇumitra are going). Here, although the verb gacchanti is in plural it is a single ‘gamanakriyā’ (a single act of going). Rather, the number suggests that the noun or kāraka is in dual/plural. The kāraka and kriyā are bound by mutual expectancy (parasparākāṅkṣā).

संज्ञा ॥ Samjñā

Name or designation- caitra, padmā etc. In terms of Translation, although it is possible some times, one should not try to translate the śabdas denoting samjñā- viṣṇu (all-pervading), pārvatī (the daughter of parvata) etc. On the other hand, the samjñas have to be transliterated and the derivative or literary (basic/simple) meaning may be provided in parenthesis or footnotes or endnotes.

Two-Fold Categorization

Maharshi Panini, preferred a two-fold classification of Padas - Subantam (सुबन्तम्) and Tinganta (तिङ्गन्तं) according to the Ashtadhyayi sutras (1.4.15). He explained the Upasargas and Nipatas also but included them in Subanta padas instead of having them as two separate classes of words. He included Avyavas (indeclinables) and other sets of words also under subantas thereby achieving brevity.

Denotation of Words

There is a great divergence among the various schools of thought regarding the locus of Shakti. What does a word denote?

• A universal class (जातिः । jaati)?
• An individual (व्यक्तिः । vyakti)?
• A particular form (आकृतिः । akrti)?

When we take up the interpretation of a शब्द there will be the dichotomy of  जातिः and व्यक्तिः| The word ’Cow’ in the sentence ‘गौर्न ह्न्तव्या । do not kill a Cow’ means  ‘any Cow’ or ‘all Cows’, i.e. the जाति or universal class. On the other hand, the word ’Cow’ in the sentence ‘गाम् आनय । fetch a Cow’, means an individual Cow, i.e. व्यक्ति or an individual.

So in the sentence ‘गौर्न ह्न्तव्या’, जाति  is important and  व्यक्ति is unimportant whereas in ‘गाम् आनय’ व्यक्ति  is important and  जाति is unimportant.

There are four important views about this subject tabularized below

Explanation of what a word may denote	Samskrit Denotation	Followers
an individual (vyakti) animal or thing	केवलव्यक्तौ शक्तिः।	Sankhyas and Modern Naiyayikas
universal notion underlying all animals or things of that class	केवलजातौ शक्तिः ।	Mimamsakas and Vaiyakaranas
both the individual and class	जातिविशिष्टव्यक्तौ शक्तिः ।	Older Naiyayikas
something else outside individual and class	अपोह अतद्व्यावृत्तिः ।	Bauddhas

Each of these schools look at the denotative force of a word from a different angle and each would appear to be correct in its own way.

For example when घटमानय is being uttered the intention is that the particular entity jar (घटव्यक्तिः) is to be brought and not the class (जातिः) of jars (घटत्वम्) as the capacity for being acted upon (अर्थक्रियाकारित्वम्) exists only in the व्यक्तिः। On observing this action, a person who does not know what a घट denotes previously assumes that - that word represents such a thing. This assumption is confirmed when he next observes the jar being removed. From this it must be admitted that the denotation of the word घट is primarily ascertained in the घटव्यक्तिः as otherwise the hearer would not bring or remove the particular object. But then it may be argued that शक्तिः is grasped only on one particular व्यक्तिः and there are innumerable घटव्यक्ति-s in which शक्तिः is not grasped. This objection would appear to be valid on the face of it; but is contrary to ordinary experience. When one has ascertained शक्तिः on a particular घटव्यक्तिः he sizes up the general shape and form of a घट as a कम्बुग्रीवादिमद्वस्तुः and through it he conceives the general notion, the घटत्वम् underlying all such jars. In fact घटत्वम् is nothing but kambugrivadimatvam (कम्बुग्रीवादिमत्वम्) showing all the elements that constitute the shape of the object, such as a narrow neck, bulging belly, rounded bottom, etc. घटत्वम् is the abstract formless notion while कम्बुग्रीवादिमत्वम् is the same notion in concrete form which is called आकृतिविशेषः। It is this आकृतिविशेषः which enables one to distinguish it from other things—अतद्व्यावृत्तिः। If one has understood what is meant by the word घट, or in other words, if one has grasped the denotative force of घट, it means that he has a definite conception of

1. the Ghatavykti (घटव्यक्तिः)
2. the general notion Ghatatvam (घटत्वम्)
3. its peculiar shape — Akrti-visesha (आकृतिविशेषः) — as a कम्बुग्रीवादिमद्वस्तुः।

In his Nyayasutras, Gautama wants to convey in जात्याकृतिव्यक्तयस्तु पदार्थः (1-2-68) sutra that the meaning of a word rests on all the three, जातिः, आकृतिः and व्यक्तिः. The three notions जातिः, आकृतिः and व्यक्तिः are but different phases of one and the same thing serving distinct functions in logical explanation and as such inseparable from one another.

The Vaiyaakaranas emphasize that the denotative force acts primarily on the जातिः as that is the life-giving element in any substance, प्राणप्रदः। The conception of the व्यक्तिः is by a later mental process such as Anumana, Arthapatti or even by Vyajnana (suggestion). As the visual sense organ is in direct contact only with the व्यक्तिः and as अर्थक्रियाकारित्वम् rests on it, it is only the व्यक्तिः that can be brought when someone says घटमानय. It may be noted that Mimamsakas, Advaitins, and the Alamkarikas accept this siddhanta, and embellish it further, even though they do not accept the Sphotavada of Vaiyakaranas.

The Buddhists who want to refute both the Mimamasaka and the Naiyayika at the same time strike a new path and contend that the primary import of words is अपोह or अतद्व्यावृत्तिः i.e. differentia from all things other than that. In other words, the word घट primarily denotes a thing different from non-jar things and the जातिः and व्यक्तिः are only aids for this differentia.

The difference between denotation and connotation on which great emphasis is laid by Western logicians, does not find a place in any of the above views. If we may use these two words in their most general meaning, it may be said in general that the अभिधा (or शक्तिः) of the Naiyayikas comprises both these notions, जातिः corresponding to the connoted attribute and व्यक्तिः to the denoted object as qualified by the जातिः।