Arthaviveka (अर्थविवेकः)

Arthaviveka (Samskrit : अर्थविवेकः) deals with the importance of certain factors in determining the exact meaning of an expression. In Brhddevata, it is said that by rule the meaning, of both the Vedic mantra and an ordinary sentence, is to be determined from the considerations of six factors such as purpose, an indication from another place (lingam), the context, propriety, the place and time. Described as Contextual Factors by Kunjunni Raja in his 'Indian Theories of Meaning', he discusses many factors involved in the determination of the exact meaning of a word in an ambiguous expression.

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

The term Shabda is integrally related to Artha which has different shades of meaning in the world of Samskrit language and communication. Artha basically refers to an object signified by a word the moment it is pronounced in the linguistic context. In numerous contexts, the term stands for an object in the sense of an element of external reality. The scope of Artha is widely discussed in Samskrit texts, not limited to what is usually understood, as the domain of semantics, in the western philosophy.

One of the much discussed aspects is the relationship between the shabda (word) and its artha (meaning). While some darsanikas argue that the relationship is natural others term it as conventional. The relation between a word and the its meaning (पदपदार्थयोस्सम्बन्धः) is called Shakti as discussed in Siddhanta Muktavali. According to the Naiyayikas the words are classified under four heads

• यौगिकशब्दः । yaugikashabda - etymological word
• रूढिशब्दः । rūḍhishabda - conventional word
• योगरूढम् । yogarūḍham - etymological and conventional
• यौगिकरूढम् । yaugikarūḍham - etymological or conventional

Of these the yaugika-rudha refers to words where the meaning of which can be taken either as a yaugika (etymological) or a rudha (conventional). It is possible to consider such a word as an instance of two words with different meanings, having the same form. There are various means by which the potential ambiguity in the case of homonyms and homophones is removed in different languages. The real differentiation possible in all cases of ambiguity is by grammatical means and by the context of the situation.

बृहद्देवता॥ Brhddevata

The importance of situational or contextual factors in determining the exact meaning of an expression has been emphasized by various writers in Bharatavarsha. According to Brhddevata the rule that the meaning of an expression has to be determined from the considerations of a few factors, applicable to both Vedic mantras as well as that of an ordinary sentence.

अर्थात्प्रकरणाल्लिङ्गाद् औचित्याद्देशकालतः । मन्त्रेष्वर्थविवेकः स्याद् इतरेष्विति च स्थितिः ।। ११ ८।। (Brhdevata. 2.118)

Summary: The meaning, of Vedic mantras and those (words) other than mantras is to be determined from considerations of

• अर्थः ॥ Artha - the purpose to be served
• प्रकरणम् ॥ Prakarana - the subject matter under discussion
• लिङ्गम् ॥ Linga - an indication from another place
• औचित्यम् ॥ Auchitya - Propriety
• देशः ॥ Desha - the place
• कालः ॥ Kala - the time

These factors are elaborated by Bhartrhari along with the addition of a few more factors involved in the determination of meaning.

मीमांसा॥ Mimamsa

Of the terms mentioned in Brhddevata, prakarana, linga, and artha are known to Mimamsakas also. The process of subordinating the details of a yajna is done by the six means of proof as given below:

श्रुति-लिङ्ग-वाक्य-प्रकरण-स्थान-समाख्यानां समवाये पारदौर्बल्यम् अर्थविप्रकर्षात् । ३,३.१४ (Mimasa. 3.3.14)

śrutiliñgavākyaprakaraṇasthāna-samākyānām samavāye pāradaurbalyam arthaviprakarṣāt।

Summary: Text (śruti) - it is direct assertion, a complete sentence. Implication (liṅga) - if the meaning of a word or a sentence is not apparently clear, the implication from another word is accepted. Syntactical Connection (vākya), Context (prakaraṇa) - the context of the situation, Place (sthāṇa) - Place or position and Etymological meaning (Samkhya) are the six means of proofs mentioned. Of these each preceding one is stronger that each succeeding one.

Bhrtrhari gives another list of such factors that determine the exact meaning of a word in the case of ambiguous and equivocal expressions. This list is taken up for detailed discussion by later vaiyakaranas like Nagesa and alamkarikas like Mammata, Visvanatha, Hemachandra, Appaya Dikshita and Jagannatha.

वाक्यपदीयम् ॥ Vākyapadīyam

Bhartrhari defines in vākyakāṇḍa of Vākyapadīyam the deciding factors of a meaning in the following way

वाक्यात्प्रकरणादर्थादौचित्याद्देशकालतः । शब्दार्थाः प्रविभज्यन्ते न रूपादेव केवलात् । । २.३१४ । ।

vākyātprakaraṇādarthādaucityāddeśakālataḥ | śabdārthāḥ pravibhajyante na rūpādeva kevalāt|| (vākyakāṇḍa - 314)

संसर्गो विप्रयोगश्च साहचर्यं विरोधिता । अर्थः प्रकरणं लिङ्गं शब्दस्यान्यस्य संनिधिः । । २.३१५ । ।

samsargo viprayogaśca sāhacaryam virodhitā | arthaḥ prakaraṇam liṅgam śabdasyānyasya sannidhiḥ|| (vākyakāṇḍa - 315)

सामर्थ्यं औचिती देशः कालो व्यक्तिः स्वरादयः । शब्दार्थस्यानवच्छेदे विशेषस्मृतिहेतवः । । २.३१६ । ।

sāmarthyamaucitī deśaḥ kālo vyaktiḥ svarādayaḥ| śabdārthasyānavacchede viśeṣasmṛtihetavaḥ|| (vākyakāṇḍa - 316) (Vaky. 2.314 - 316)

संसर्गः ॥ Samsarga or Samyoga

Samsarga (contact) or samyoga (association in some texts) is a connection that is generally known to exist between two things.

‘सशङ्कचक्रो हरिः॥ saśankhacakro hariḥ’

Hari with śankha and cakra. Due to the association with conch and disc, here the ambiguous term Hari is restricted to Viṣṇu alone. The word Hari has many meanings- frog, lion, snake, parrot, indra, vāyu, monkey etc.

विप्रयोगः ॥ Viprayoga

It is the disappearance of the connection that is known to exist between two things.

‘विशङ्कचक्रो हरिः॥ viśankhacakro hariḥ’

Hari without śankha and cakra. Due to dissociation with conch and disc, here Hari means viṣṇu. Association precedes dissociation.

साहचर्यं ॥ Sāhacarya

It is the mutual association. Jagannatha, in his Rasagangadhara, distinguishes this from samyoga and viprayoga thus: When the connection (or the separation from that well-known connection) restricting the denotation of a word is actually expressed by a word (like, 'with' or 'without'), it is samyoga or viprayoga; but when two related things are stated together, as in a dvanda samasa, it is Sahacharya.

‘तौ रामलक्ष्मणौ ॥ tau rāmalakṣmaṇau’

In the expression 'they are Rāma and Lakṣmaṇa', Rāma may mean Śrīrāma or Balarāma or Paruṣurāma. Since Śrīrāma, being the brother can have company with Lakṣmaṇa, here Rāma refers to Śrīrāma.

विरोधिता ॥ Virodhitā

It is the well-known hostility.

‘रामार्जुनगतिर्तयोः ॥ rāmārjunagatiḥ tayoḥ’

Their behaviour is akin to that of Rāma and Arjuna. Here, following hostility, Rāma means Paraśurāma and Arjuna means Kārtavīryārjuna. Again in the expression "Karna and Arjuna", Arjuna refers only to the son of Kunti and opponent of Karna and not Arjuna, the son of Kartavirya. It is also used to express the contrast as in 'chaya and kanti', where the term chaya means shade and not beauty.

All these four factors (Samyoga, Viprayoga, Sahacharya, Virodhita) can be brought together under 'association of meaning'. The meaning of a word can be determined by the meanings of the words collocated with it.

अर्थः ॥ Artha

It is the purpose served. Communication is made to achieve a meaningful purpose. The meanings of the words must be explained in such a way as to serve the purpose.

‘स्थाणुं भज भवच्छिदे ॥ sthāṇum bhaja bhavacchide’

The word ‘sthāṇu’ means Śiva or a block of wood. - pray to ‘sthāṇu’ for removing the shackles of worldly existence. Since Śiva only can help in attaining mokṣa, which is the intended object of the worship, here sthāṇu means Śiva.

Nagesa explains the term Artha as "the meaning of another word". Examples include अञ्जलिना जुहोति। He offers oblations with folded hands and अञ्जलिना सूर्यं उपतिष्ठते। He worships the sun with folded hands. Here in the former case the term Anjali has to be taken in the sense of "hands placed side by side to hold the oblation" and in the latter case, in the sense of "folded palms as a mark of salutation".

प्रकरणम् ॥ Prakaraṇam

Prakaranam indicates the context of the situation in which the word is used.

‘सैन्धवमानय ॥ saindhavamānaya’

Saindhava means a kind of salt as well as a kind of horse (from the land of sindhu). If one pronounces a sentence like ‘saindhavamānaya’ (fetch saindhavam) at the time of dinner it means ‘salt’ and if pronounced when one is about to start on a journey it means a ‘horse’. Similarly "devo janati sarvam" means "my lord knows everything", whether the term deva means a "devata or a raja" is to be decided from the context. In the Mahabhashya (6.1.84), Patanjali stresses on the importance of Artha and Prakarana in deciding the meaning of words as below:

अर्थात् प्रकरणाद्वा लोके द्वयोरेकस्याभिनिर्वृत्तिर्भवति । (Maha. Bhas. 6.1.84)

Modern linguists also stress on the importance of the context of the situation in deciding the meaning of words of a sentence.

लिङ्गम् ॥ Liṅgam

Linga is 'indication' from another place, such as an attribute, in the same sentence, to restrict the meaning of the word.

‘कुपितो मकरध्वजः ॥ kupito makaradhvajaḥ’

Makaradhvajaḥ means Manmatha or Samudra. ‘kupito makaradhvajaḥ’ (makaradhvaja is angry) is a sentence wherein Makaradhvaja means Manmatha rather than Samudra. Being angry is applicable to Manmatha. ‘ocean is angry’- is a figurative usage. In this case the association need not be a well-known one as in the case of samyoga, the attribute used being only for rejecting the other meaning (as per Pradipa commentary).

शब्दस्यान्यस्य संनिधिः ॥ Śabdasyānyasya Sannidhi

It means the vicinity of another word. It is the use of a word having a meaning logically connected with only one of the possible meanings of the ambiguous word. Jagannatha in his Rasagangadhara gives the following example,

‘करेण राजते नागः॥ kareṇa rājate nāgaḥ’

Both words Kara and naaga are ambiguous and each word restricts the meaning of the other by its proximity. Kara means hand or tusk. Nāga means serpent or elephant or a person belonging to the clan of nāgas. ‘kareṇa rājate nāgaḥ’ (the nāga is shining with kara) - is a sentence wherein kara, due to the proximity of the word nāga, means tusk and nāga, due to the proximity of the word ‘kara’, means elephant.

सामर्थ्यम्॥ Sāmarthyam

It is the capacity that is known from the result. In the example,

‘मधुनामत्तकोकिलाः ॥ madhunā mattaḥ kokilaḥ’

Madhu means honey, the month of caitra and honey. In the sentence ‘madhunā mattaḥ kokilaḥ’, the cuckoo is intoxicated by madhu, the word madhu means ‘the month of chaitra’ (spring season) and not honey, as only the former has the power to intoxicate the cuckoo.

औचित्यम् ॥ Aucityam

Auchiti is propriety or congruity. In the example,

‘पातु वो दयितामुखम् ॥ pātu vo dayitāmukham’ (may the dayitāmukham protect you).

Here ‘dayitāmukham’ means ‘the face of love’ (lady) but the term mukha means 'favour' (sammukhya) and not 'face', since only the former meaning will be proper in the context. The word has to be taken in the sense of ‘the positive behaviour of the love’, following propriety.

देशः ॥ Deśaḥ

The place is referred here.

‘वैकुण्ठे हरिः वसति ॥ vaikuṇṭhe hariḥ vasati’

In the sentence- ‘vaikuṇṭhe hariḥ vasati’ (hari lives in vaikuṇṭha), the word ‘Hari’ means Viṣṇu, as vaikuṇṭham is the abode of the latter. In the sentence भातीह परमेश्वरः। Here shines Parameshvara, refers to the place (here) shows that by the term parameshvara is meant 'raja' and not the deity 'Shiva'.

कालो ॥ Kālaḥ

Kala refers to time.

‘दिवाचित्रभानुः विभाति॥ divā citrabhānuḥ vibhāti’

In the sentence ‘divā citrabhānuḥ vibhāti’ (citrabhānu is shining during daytime), the word citrabhānu means ‘sun’, whereas in the sentence ‘rātrau citrabhānuḥ vibhāti’ (citrabhānu is shining during night) the same means ‘light of fire (moon)’.

व्यक्तिः ॥ Vyaktiḥ

The word ‘मित्रम् । mitram’ is in neuter gender and it means ‘friend’. ‘मित्रः । mitraḥ’ is in masculine gender and it means ‘sun’. नभस् । Nabhas (neuter) means ‘sky’ whereas ‘नभः । nabhaḥ’(masculine) means the month of śrāvaṇa.

स्वरादयः ॥ Svaraḥ

In Vedic literature, the svara (udātta, anudātta, svarita etc.) causes change of meaning in the mantra. Vṛtrāsura was meant to be the "killer of Indra". Due to wrong pronunciation of the mantra, i.e. svāhendraśatrurvardhasva, in terms of svara (ādyudātta instead of antodātta), he became "one whose killer is Indra". The Shatapatha Brahmana, refers to the story of Vrtra who lost his life, because of the wrong use of accent in the chanting of the mantras.