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== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==

Shiksha is considered as the nose (घ्राणम् - ghrāṇam) of Vedapuruṣa (knowledge personified). Unlike other later day languages, pronunciation is of utmost importance in Samskrit. Different speech organs, places for different letters, the efforts, the accents, quantity, pitch, stress, melody, process of how letters are produced, the virtues and vices of pronunciation, the problem with mis-pronunciation etc. are discussed in this Vedanga.

Shiksha is considered as the nose (घ्राणम् - ghrāṇam) of Vedapuruṣa (knowledge personified). Unlike other later day languages, pronunciation is of utmost importance in Samskrit. Different speech organs, places for different letters, the efforts, the accents, quantity, pitch, stress, melody, process of how letters are produced, the virtues and vices of pronunciation, the problem with mispronunciation etc. are discussed in this Vedanga.

Each ancient vaidika parampara which sustained over ages must have developed pronunciation and the earliest surviving texts which deal with some aspects of pronunciation are the Pratishakyas. The ''Paniniya-Siksa'' and ''Naradiya-Siksa'' are examples of extant ancient manuscripts of this field of Vedic studies.

Each ancient vaidika parampara which sustained over ages must have developed pronunciation and the earliest surviving texts which deal with some aspects of pronunciation are the Pratishakyas. The Paniniya-Shiksha and ''Naradiya-Siksa'' are examples of extant ancient manuscripts of this field of Vedic studies. One should learn Shiksha principles before studying the Vyakarana.

''Shiksha'' is the oldest and the first auxiliary discipline to the [[Vedas]], maintained since the Vedic era. It aimed at construction of sound and language for synthesis of ideas, in contrast to grammarians who developed rules for language deconstruction and understanding of ideas. This field helped preserve the Vedas and the Upanishads as the canons of [[Hinduism]] since the ancient times, and shared by various Hindu traditions.

The ancient Vedic schools developed major treatises analyzing sound, vowels and consonants, rules of combination and pronunciation to assist clear understanding, to avoid mistakes and for resonance (pleasing to the listener). These texts include Samhita-pathas and Pada-pathas, and partially or fully surviving manuscripts include Paniniya Shiksha, Naradiya Shiksha, Bharadvaja Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha, Vasishthi Shiksha, Parashari Shiksha, Katyayani Shiksha and Manduki Shiksha.

The ancient Vedic schools developed major treatises analyzing sound, vowels and consonants, rules of combination and pronunciation to assist clear understanding, to avoid mistakes and for resonance (pleasing to the listener). These texts include ''Samhita-pathas'' and ''Pada-pathas'', and partially or fully surviving manuscripts include ''Paniniya Shiksha'', ''Naradiya Shiksha'', ''Bharadvaja Shiksha'', ''Yajnavalkya Shiksha'', ''Vasishthi Shiksha'', ''Parashari Shiksha'', ''Katyayani Shiksha'' and ''Manduki Shiksha''.<ref name="Banerji1989p323">{{cite book|author=Sures Chandra Banerji|title=A Companion to Sanskrit Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-0063-2|pages=323–324}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kireet Joshi|title=The Veda and Indian Culture: An Introductory Essay|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1CJlM2nhlt0C&pg=PA96|year=1991|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0889-8|pages=96–97}}</ref>

There are thirty seven or so Shiksha compiled by different seers of Bharatvarsha. Phonetics (in Modern Linguistics) is a rough translation of Śikṣā. The latter deals with many issues related to pronunciation. The term Śikṣā literally means – the one that trains pronunciation etc. of letters.

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

The roots of ''Shiksha'' can be traced to [[Rigveda]] which dedicates two hymns 10.125 and 10.71 to revere sound as a goddess, and links the development of thought to the development of speech. [[Taittiriya Upanishad]] contains one of the earliest description of ''Shiksha'' as follows,

The roots of Shiksha can be traced to [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]] which dedicates two hymns 10.125 and 10.71 to revere sound as a goddess, and links the development of thought to the development of speech. Taittiriya Upanishad, in Shikshavalli,  contains one of the earliest description of Shiksha as follows,<blockquote>शीक्षां व्याख्यास्यामः। वर्णस्स्वरः। मात्रा बलम्। साम सन्तानः। इत्युक्तश्शीक्षाध्यायः ॥ (Tait. Upan. Shik. 2)<ref>Taittriya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4% Shikshavalli  Anuvaka 2])</ref></blockquote>Now, we will clearly state about Shiksha (phonetics). There are six aspects to be discussed in Shiksha: letter, accent, short/long vowel etc, the efforts to be put in during pronunciation, pronouncing at medium pace and the sandhi (the change in the form of letters when uttered in quick succession) - this is called the chapter of Shiksha.

{{lang|sa|ॐ शीक्षां व्याख्यास्यामः ।

The earliest Brahmanas – a layer of text within the Vedas, include some terms of art in the Vedic phonetics, such as Varna and Avasana. Panini shiksha describes the physiological process by which [[Origin and Propagation of Sound (शब्दोत्पत्तिः प्रसारश्च)|sound (or varnas here) is produced]] in the human being.

Om! We will explain the Shiksha.

Varnas are the fundamental speech units and they are produced (वर्णोत्पत्तिः) by a complex process involving the antaranga or inner mind combined with air and articulating organs. Speech sounds are generated on the basis of the following

Sounds and accentuation, Quantity (of vowels) and the expression (of consonants),

# स्वरः ॥ Svara (Accent or Pitch)

Balancing (Saman) and connection (of sounds), So much about the study of Shiksha -1 |6=Taittiriya Upanishad 1.2, Shikshavalli|7=Translated by [[Paul Deussen]]<ref>Paul Deussen (1997 Reprint), Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120814684, page 222</ref><ref name="Banerji1989p323"/>}}

# मात्रा ॥ Matra (Quantity or time of utterance)

# स्थानम् ॥ Sthana (Place of articulation)

# प्रयत्नः ॥ Prayatna (Effort)  

# ॥ Anupradana (Sound material)

==History==

=== स्वरः ॥ Accent or Pitch ===

''Shiksha'', states Hartmut Scharfe, was the first branch of linguistics to develop as an independent Vedic field of study among the Vedangas.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78">{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Grammatical Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2_VbnWkZ-SYC&pg=PA207|year=1977|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01706-0|pages=78-79}}</ref> This is likely because Vedas were transmitted from one generation to the next by oral tradition, and the preservation and the techniques of preservation depended on phonetics.

While difference in accent causes a difference in meaning in the vedic literature, accent is not given importance in classical samskrit literature. The अचः (acaḥ = vowels) are called स्वराः (svarāḥ) as they shine with 'svara' and being the 'dharma', udātta etc. are also called svarāḥ. Panini in his famous Ashtadhyayi defines svaras as follows<ref>Vedangas - Siksha by Prof. Korada Subrahmanyam</ref><blockquote>उच्चैरुदात्तः ॥ uccairudāttaḥ ॥ १-२-२९ ॥ If the vowel is pronounced in the upper parts, it is called udātta.</blockquote><blockquote>नीचैरनुदात्तः ॥ nīcairanudāttaḥ ॥ १-२-३0 ॥ If the vowel is pronounced in the lower parts, it is called anudātta.</blockquote><blockquote>समाहारः स्वरितः ॥ samāhāraḥ svaritaḥ ॥ १-२-३१ ॥ Svarita is the combination of udātta and anudātta. (Asht. 1.2.29-31)<ref>Maharshi Panini's Ashtadhyayi ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%80_%E0%A5%A7#%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97_%E0%A5%A7.%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 1 Pada 2])</ref></blockquote>

The earliest [[Brahmanas]] – a layer of text within the [[Vedas]], include some terms of art in the Vedic phonetics, such as ''Varna'' and ''Avasana''. The ''Shiksha'' field was likely well developed by the time [[Aranyaka]]s and [[Upanishad]]s layer of the Vedas were being composed.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78" /> The alphabet had been categorized by this time, into vowels (''svara''), stops (''sparsa''), semivowels (''antastha'') and spirants (''usman'').<ref name="Scharfe1977p78" /> The field was fundamental to the ancient study of linguistics, and it developed as an interest and inquiry into sounds rather than letters.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78" /> ''Shiksha'', as described in these ancient texts, had six chapters - ''varna'' (sound), ''svara'' (accent), ''matra'' (quantity), ''bala'' (strength, articulation), ''saman''(recital) and ''samtana'' (connection between preceding and following sounds).<ref name="Scharfe1977p78" />

Following the time taken for pronunciation, the vowels (acaḥ = vowels) are named ह्रस्व (hrasva = short), दीर्घ (dīrgha = long) and प्लुत (pluta = longer). The time for these vowels is fixed by Yajnavalkya in his Shiksha<blockquote>एकमात्रो भवेद्ध्रस्वः द्विमात्रो दीर्घ उच्यते। त्रिमात्रस्तु प्लुतो ज्ञेयः व्यञ्जनं त्वर्धमात्रकम् ॥ १३ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>ekamātro bhaveddhrasvaḥ dvimātro dīrgha ucyate । trimātrastu pluto jñeyaḥ vyañjanaṃ tvardhamātrikam ॥ 13 ॥</blockquote>If the vowel is uttered in a single mātrā or the time taken for the fall of an eyelid, then it is called hrasva, if it is two mātras, then it is dīrgha and if takes three mātras, then it is pluta. A hal (consonant) has got half-a-mātrā time. 'a' (अ) is hrasva; ā (आ) is dīrgha; and 'a3' (अ३) is pluta. For hal, 'क् क्' (k k) takes one mātrā and for a single consonant, it is half-a-mātrā.

The insights from this field, states Scharfe, "without doubt was applied by Vedic scholars to the art of writing". It also impacted the development of Indic scripts and evolution of language in countries that sought Indian texts or were influenced by Indian religions.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78" /> According to Scharfe, and other scholars, the insights developed in this field, over time, likely also influenced phonetic scripts in parts of East Asia, as well as Arabic grammarian Halil in 8th-century CE.<ref name="Scharfe1977p80">{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Grammatical Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2_VbnWkZ-SYC&pg=PA207|year=1977|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01706-0|pages=79-80}}</ref><ref>Hans Jensen (1969), Sign, Symbol and Script, 3rd Edition, Putnam Publishers, ISBN 978-0044000211, Chapter: ''On the influence of Sanskrit upon phonetic studies in Chinese and Japanese''</ref>

Panini in his Ashtadhyayi gives a natural example to imitate the pronunciation of hrasva, dīrgha and pluta – <blockquote>ऊकालोऽच् ह्रस्वदीर्घप्लुतः ॥ १-२-२७ ॥ ūkālo'c hrasvadīrghaplutaḥ ॥ 1-2-27 ॥      </blockquote>A cock's sound has to be taken as an example of hrasva, dīrgha and pluta, i.e. the time taken by a cock to pronounce u, o and o3 (उ, ओ, ओ३) is the right time to follow.

The alphabet had been classified into vowels (''svara''), stops (''sparsa''), semivowels (''antastha'') and spirants (''usman''). The field was fundamental to the ancient study of linguistics, and it developed as an interest and inquiry into sounds rather than letters. ''Shiksha'', as described in these ancient texts, had six chapters - ''varna'' (sound), ''svara'' (accent), ''matra'' (quantity), ''bala'' (strength, articulation), ''saman''(recital) and ''samtana'' (connection between preceding and following sounds).

The ''Shiksha'' field of Vedic studies arranged the Sanskrit alphabet in a rational order, state Wilke and Moebus, each mapped to the anatomical nature of human sounds, from the back to the front - throat (at the very back), palate, palatal ridge, teeth and lips.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=478}}

==Pratishakhyas==

 

 

 

===Pratishakhyas===

Pratisakhyas are the oldest ''Siksa'' textbooks of each branch of the Vedas.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=492}} Later Siksa texts are more specialized and systematic, and often titled with suffix "Siksa", such as the Naradiya-Siksa, Vyasa-Siksa, Pari-Siksa and Sarvasammata-Siksa.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=492-493}}

Pratisakhyas are the oldest ''Siksa'' textbooks of each branch of the Vedas.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=492}} Later Siksa texts are more specialized and systematic, and often titled with suffix "Siksa", such as the Naradiya-Siksa, Vyasa-Siksa, Pari-Siksa and Sarvasammata-Siksa.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=492-493}}

==Sound and alphabet==

==Sound and alphabet==

Traditionally [[syllables]] (not letters) in Sanskrit are called [[Aksara|''Akshara'']], meaning "imperishable (entity)": "atoms" of speech, as it were. These aksharas are classified mainly into two types:<ref>"Siddhanta Kaumudi" by Bhattoji Diksita and "Laghu Siddhanta Kaumudi", by Varadaraja.</ref>

Traditionally syllables (not letters) are called Akshara, meaning 'imperishable'. These aksharas are classified mainly into two types:<ref>Siddhanta Kaumudi by Bhattoji Diksita and Laghu Siddhanta Kaumudi by Varadaraja.</ref>

* '''Svara''' ([[Shiva Sutra|pratyahara]] ''aC''): [[Vowel]]

* '''Svara''' ([[Shiva Sutra|pratyahara]] ''aC''): [[Vowel]]

* '''Vyanjana''' (pratyahara ''haL''): [[Consonant]]

* '''Vyanjana''' (pratyahara ''haL''): [[Consonant]]