Changes

'''Shiksha''' (Samskrit: शिक्षा) means "instruction, lesson, learning, study of skill".<ref name="Banerji1989p323">{{cite book|author=Sures Chandra Banerji|title=A Companion to Sanskrit Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-0063-2|pages=323–324}}</ref> It also refers to one of the six [[Vedanga]]s, or limbs of Vedic studies, others being grammar (Vyakarana), prosody (Chandas), ritual (Kalpa), etymology (Nirukta) and astrology (Jyotisha, calculating favorable time for rituals). Shiksha is a knowledge of phonetics. It deals with pronunciation and accent.<ref>All About Hinduism, Swami Sivananda, Page 34</ref>

'''Shiksha''' (Samskrit: शिक्षा) means "instruction, lesson, learning, study of skill". Shiksha is a knowledge of pronunciation and accent, insufficiently expressed as phonetics.<ref>All About Hinduism, Swami Sivananda, Page 34</ref> In this context it refers to one of the six [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]], or limbs of Vedic studies, others being [[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyākaraṇam]] (Grammar), Chandas (Prosody), Niruktam (Semantics and Thesaurus), [[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotiṣam]] (Astrology) and [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]] (Practice of Rites). It has an important place in the Vidyasthanas and hence study of this shastra is a prerequisite for Vyakarana.  

In particular it focuses on the letters of the Sanskrit alphabet, accent, quantity, stress, melody and rules of euphonic combination of words during a Vedic recitation.<ref name="Banerji1989p323"/> Each ancient Vedic school developed this field of ''Vedanga'', and the oldest surviving phonetic textbooks are the ''Pratishakyas''. The ''Paniniya-Siksa'' and ''Naradiya-Siksa'' are examples of extant ancient manuscripts of this field of Vedic studies.<ref name="Banerji1989p323"/>

 

Shiksha is considered as the nose (घ्राणम् - ghrāṇam) of Vedapuruṣa (knowledge personified). Unlike other later day languages, pronunciation is of utmost importance in Samskrit. Different speech organs, places for different letters, the efforts, the accents, quantity, pitch, stress, melody, process of how letters are produced, the virtues and vices of pronunciation, the problem with mis-pronunciation etc. are discussed in this Vedanga.

 

Each ancient vaidika parampara which sustained over ages must have developed pronunciation and the earliest surviving texts which deal with some aspects of pronunciation are the Pratishakyas. The ''Paniniya-Siksa'' and ''Naradiya-Siksa'' are examples of extant ancient manuscripts of this field of Vedic studies.

''Shiksha'' is the oldest and the first auxiliary discipline to the [[Vedas]], maintained since the Vedic era. It aimed at construction of sound and language for synthesis of ideas, in contrast to grammarians who developed rules for language deconstruction and understanding of ideas. This field helped preserve the Vedas and the Upanishads as the canons of [[Hinduism]] since the ancient times, and shared by various Hindu traditions.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78"/>

''Shiksha'' is the oldest and the first auxiliary discipline to the [[Vedas]], maintained since the Vedic era. It aimed at construction of sound and language for synthesis of ideas, in contrast to grammarians who developed rules for language deconstruction and understanding of ideas. This field helped preserve the Vedas and the Upanishads as the canons of [[Hinduism]] since the ancient times, and shared by various Hindu traditions.

The ancient Vedic schools developed major treatises analyzing sound, vowels and consonants, rules of combination and pronunciation to assist clear understanding, to avoid mistakes and for resonance (pleasing to the listener). These texts include ''Samhita-pathas'' and ''Pada-pathas'', and partially or fully surviving manuscripts include ''Paniniya Shiksha'', ''Naradiya Shiksha'', ''Bharadvaja Shiksha'', ''Yajnavalkya Shiksha'', ''Vasishthi Shiksha'', ''Parashari Shiksha'', ''Katyayani Shiksha'' and ''Manduki Shiksha''.<ref name="Banerji1989p323" /><ref>{{cite book|author=Kireet Joshi|title=The Veda and Indian Culture: An Introductory Essay|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1CJlM2nhlt0C&pg=PA96|year=1991|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0889-8|pages=96–97}}</ref>

The ancient Vedic schools developed major treatises analyzing sound, vowels and consonants, rules of combination and pronunciation to assist clear understanding, to avoid mistakes and for resonance (pleasing to the listener). These texts include ''Samhita-pathas'' and ''Pada-pathas'', and partially or fully surviving manuscripts include ''Paniniya Shiksha'', ''Naradiya Shiksha'', ''Bharadvaja Shiksha'', ''Yajnavalkya Shiksha'', ''Vasishthi Shiksha'', ''Parashari Shiksha'', ''Katyayani Shiksha'' and ''Manduki Shiksha''.<ref name="Banerji1989p323">{{cite book|author=Sures Chandra Banerji|title=A Companion to Sanskrit Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JkOAEdIsdUsC|year=1989|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ.|isbn=978-81-208-0063-2|pages=323–324}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Kireet Joshi|title=The Veda and Indian Culture: An Introductory Essay|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1CJlM2nhlt0C&pg=PA96|year=1991|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-0889-8|pages=96–97}}</ref>

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

==History==

==History==

''Shiksha'', states Hartmut Scharfe, was the first branch of linguistics to develop as an independent Vedic field of study among the Vedangas.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78"/> This is likely because Vedas were transmitted from one generation to the next by oral tradition, and the preservation and the techniques of preservation depended on phonetics, states Scharfe.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78">{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Grammatical Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2_VbnWkZ-SYC&pg=PA207|year=1977|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01706-0|pages=78-79}}</ref>

''Shiksha'', states Hartmut Scharfe, was the first branch of linguistics to develop as an independent Vedic field of study among the Vedangas.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78">{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Grammatical Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2_VbnWkZ-SYC&pg=PA207|year=1977|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01706-0|pages=78-79}}</ref> This is likely because Vedas were transmitted from one generation to the next by oral tradition, and the preservation and the techniques of preservation depended on phonetics.

The earliest [[Brahmanas]] – a layer of text within the [[Vedas]], include some terms of art in the Vedic phonetics, such as ''Varna'' and ''Avasana''. The ''Shiksha'' field was likely well developed by the time [[Aranyaka]]s and [[Upanishad]]s layer of the Vedas were being composed.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78"/> The alphabet had been categorized by this time, into vowels (''svara''), stops (''sparsa''), semivowels (''antastha'') and spirants (''usman'').<ref name="Scharfe1977p78"/> The field was fundamental to the ancient study of linguistics, and it developed as an interest and inquiry into sounds rather than letters.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78"/> ''Shiksha'', as described in these ancient texts, had six chapters - ''varna'' (sound), ''svara'' (accent), ''matra'' (quantity), ''bala'' (strength, articulation), ''saman''(recital) and ''samtana'' (connection between preceding and following sounds).<ref name="Scharfe1977p78"/>

The earliest [[Brahmanas]] – a layer of text within the [[Vedas]], include some terms of art in the Vedic phonetics, such as ''Varna'' and ''Avasana''. The ''Shiksha'' field was likely well developed by the time [[Aranyaka]]s and [[Upanishad]]s layer of the Vedas were being composed.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78" /> The alphabet had been categorized by this time, into vowels (''svara''), stops (''sparsa''), semivowels (''antastha'') and spirants (''usman'').<ref name="Scharfe1977p78" /> The field was fundamental to the ancient study of linguistics, and it developed as an interest and inquiry into sounds rather than letters.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78" /> ''Shiksha'', as described in these ancient texts, had six chapters - ''varna'' (sound), ''svara'' (accent), ''matra'' (quantity), ''bala'' (strength, articulation), ''saman''(recital) and ''samtana'' (connection between preceding and following sounds).<ref name="Scharfe1977p78" />

The insights from this field, states Scharfe, "without doubt was applied by Vedic scholars to the art of writing". It also impacted the development of Indic scripts and evolution of language in countries that sought Indian texts or were influenced by Indian religions.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78"/> According to Scharfe, and other scholars, the insights developed in this field, over time, likely also influenced phonetic scripts in parts of East Asia, as well as Arabic grammarian Halil in 8th-century CE.<ref name="Scharfe1977p80">{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Grammatical Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2_VbnWkZ-SYC&pg=PA207|year=1977|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01706-0|pages=79-80}}</ref><ref>Hans Jensen (1969), Sign, Symbol and Script, 3rd Edition, Putnam Publishers, ISBN 978-0044000211,  Chapter: ''On the influence of Sanskrit upon phonetic studies in Chinese and Japanese''</ref>

The insights from this field, states Scharfe, "without doubt was applied by Vedic scholars to the art of writing". It also impacted the development of Indic scripts and evolution of language in countries that sought Indian texts or were influenced by Indian religions.<ref name="Scharfe1977p78" /> According to Scharfe, and other scholars, the insights developed in this field, over time, likely also influenced phonetic scripts in parts of East Asia, as well as Arabic grammarian Halil in 8th-century CE.<ref name="Scharfe1977p80">{{cite book|author=Hartmut Scharfe|title=Grammatical Literature|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=2_VbnWkZ-SYC&pg=PA207|year=1977|publisher=Otto Harrassowitz Verlag|isbn=978-3-447-01706-0|pages=79-80}}</ref><ref>Hans Jensen (1969), Sign, Symbol and Script, 3rd Edition, Putnam Publishers, ISBN 978-0044000211,  Chapter: ''On the influence of Sanskrit upon phonetic studies in Chinese and Japanese''</ref>

==Discussion==

==Discussion==

These Mudras continue to be part of the classical Indian dance tradition.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus  |2011|pp=479-480}} In Sanskrit, the posture of the performer is an added dimension to those of pronunciation and gesture, together these empowered muscular memory with acoustic memory in the Hindu tradition of remembering and transmitting Sanskrit texts from one generation to the next, state Wilke and Moebus.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=480}}

These Mudras continue to be part of the classical Indian dance tradition.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus  |2011|pp=479-480}} In Sanskrit, the posture of the performer is an added dimension to those of pronunciation and gesture, together these empowered muscular memory with acoustic memory in the Hindu tradition of remembering and transmitting Sanskrit texts from one generation to the next, state Wilke and Moebus.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=480}}

The methodical phonetic procedure developed by ''Shiksha'' helped preserve the Vedas without the slightest variants in the most faithful way possible.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=495}} It made the Vedas and embedded Principal Upanishads the canonical scriptures of Hinduism. The rules and symmetric of Siksa helped the student to master enormous volumes of knowledge, and use the embedded codes and rules to self check his memory.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=495}}The reciter's mind and body are engaged, making language and sound as an emotional performance.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=499}} The study of phonetics functioned to transform a Vedic text, which traditionally was composed as language-music, into a musical performance.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=500-501}} Individual sounds in the Sanskrit have independent personalities, and the reciter helps develop their character and their timbre, state Wilke and Moebus. Naradiya Siksa, a phonetics treatise on the [[Sama Veda]] explains this aspects of phonology with various similes, such as,{{Quote|

The methodical phonetic procedure developed by ''Shiksha'' helped preserve the Vedas without the slightest variants in the most faithful way possible.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=495}} It made the Vedas and embedded Principal Upanishads the canonical scriptures of Hinduism. The rules and symmetric of Siksa helped the student to master enormous volumes of knowledge, and use the embedded codes and rules to self check his memory.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=495}}The reciter's mind and body are engaged, making language and sound as an emotional performance.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=499}} The study of phonetics functioned to transform a Vedic text, which traditionally was composed as language-music, into a musical performance.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=500-501}} Individual sounds in the Sanskrit have independent personalities, and the reciter helps develop their character and their timbre, state Wilke and Moebus. Naradiya Siksa, a phonetics treatise on the [[Sama Veda]] explains this aspects of phonology with various similes, such as,{{Quote|

Pratisakhyas are the oldest ''Siksa'' textbooks of each branch of the Vedas.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=492}} Later Siksa texts are more specialized and systematic, and often titled with suffix "Siksa", such as the Naradiya-Siksa, Vyasa-Siksa, Pari-Siksa and Sarvasammata-Siksa.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=492-493}}

Pratisakhyas are the oldest ''Siksa'' textbooks of each branch of the Vedas.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|p=492}} Later Siksa texts are more specialized and systematic, and often titled with suffix "Siksa", such as the Naradiya-Siksa, Vyasa-Siksa, Pari-Siksa and Sarvasammata-Siksa.{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=492-493}}

The [[Pratisakhya|Pratishakhyas]], which evolved from the more ancient Vedic Texts [[padapatha]]s (''{{IAST|padapāṭha}}''), deal with the manner in which the Vedas are to be enunciated. There are separate Pratishakhyas for each Veda. They complement the books called Shiksha written by various authorities. Several Pratishakhyas have survived into the modern era, and these texts refine the structure of sound at different levels of nuance, some adding many more letters to the basic set in the Sanskrit alphabet:<ref name=egenesp152>{{cite book|author=Thomas Egenes|title=Introduction to Sanskrit|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZAu6xhfb4bUC&pg=PA152|year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1693-0|pages=152–154}}</ref>

The [[Pratisakhya|Pratishakhyas]], which evolved from the more ancient Vedic Texts [[padapatha]]s (''{{IAST|padapāṭha}}''), deal with the manner in which the Vedas are to be enunciated. There are separate Pratishakhyas for each Veda. They complement the books called Shiksha written by various authorities. Several Pratishakhyas have survived into the modern era, and these texts refine the structure of sound at different levels of nuance, some adding many more letters to the basic set in the Sanskrit alphabet:<ref name="egenesp152">{{cite book|author=Thomas Egenes|title=Introduction to Sanskrit|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ZAu6xhfb4bUC&pg=PA152|year=1996|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass|isbn=978-81-208-1693-0|pages=152–154}}</ref>

* [[Rigveda]]-Pratishakya: 47 letters<ref name=egenesp152/>

* [[Rigveda]]-Pratishakya: 47 letters<ref name="egenesp152" />

* [[Shukla Yajurveda]]-Pratishakhya: 65 letters<ref name=egenesp152/>

* [[Shukla Yajurveda]]-Pratishakhya: 65 letters<ref name="egenesp152" />

* [[Taittiriya]] (Krishna Yajurveda) Pratishakhya: 52 letters<ref name=egenesp152/>

* [[Taittiriya]] (Krishna Yajurveda) Pratishakhya: 52 letters<ref name="egenesp152" />

* [[Atharvaveda]]-Pratishakhya (Shaunakiya shakha)

* [[Atharvaveda]]-Pratishakhya (Shaunakiya shakha)

* [[Samaveda]]-Pratishakhya (Rig-tantra): 57 letters (Pushpasutra is the second Pratishakhya of Samaveda)<ref>{{cite book| author=Kireet Joshi| title=The Veda and Indian Culture: An Introductory Essay| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1CJlM2nhlt0C| year=1991| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| isbn=978-81-208-0889-8| page=103}}</ref>

* [[Samaveda]]-Pratishakhya (Rig-tantra): 57 letters (Pushpasutra is the second Pratishakhya of Samaveda)<ref>{{cite book| author=Kireet Joshi| title=The Veda and Indian Culture: An Introductory Essay| url=http://books.google.com/books?id=1CJlM2nhlt0C| year=1991| publisher=Motilal Banarsidass| isbn=978-81-208-0889-8| page=103}}</ref>

* Paniniya-Siksa: 63 or 64 letters<ref name=egenesp152/>

* Paniniya-Siksa: 63 or 64 letters<ref name="egenesp152" />

The Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakhyas led to great clarity in understanding the surface structure of language. For clarity of pronunciation, they broke up the large Vedic [[compound word|compound]]s into [[word stem]]s, prefixes, and suffixes. Certain styles of recitation (''{{IAST|pāṭha}}''), such as the ''{{IAST|jaṭāpāṭha}},'' involved switching syllables, repeating the last word of a line at the beginning of the next, and other permutations. In the process, a considerable amount of [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is discussed, particularly regarding the combination of sequential sounds, which leads to the modalities of [[sandhi]]. The Samaveda Pratishakhya, one of the earliest,<ref>Staal, J. F., ''The Fidelity of Oral Tradition and the Origins of Science''. North-Holland Publishing Company, 1986.</ref> organizes the [[stop consonant]] sounds into a 5x5 ''varga'' or square:

The Shiksha Texts and the Pratishakhyas led to great clarity in understanding the surface structure of language. For clarity of pronunciation, they broke up the large Vedic [[compound word|compound]]s into [[word stem]]s, prefixes, and suffixes. Certain styles of recitation (''{{IAST|pāṭha}}''), such as the ''{{IAST|jaṭāpāṭha}},'' involved switching syllables, repeating the last word of a line at the beginning of the next, and other permutations. In the process, a considerable amount of [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]] is discussed, particularly regarding the combination of sequential sounds, which leads to the modalities of [[sandhi]]. The Samaveda Pratishakhya, one of the earliest, organizes the [[stop consonant]] sounds into a 5x5 ''varga'' or square:

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style=" background: transparent; " |+ The magic square within Sanskrit alphabet{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=477-479}}

{| class="wikitable" align="center" style=" background: transparent; " |+ The magic square within Sanskrit alphabet{{Sfn|Annette Wilke|Oliver Moebus|2011|pp=477-479}}

|-style="text-align: center;"  ! style="background: #ffad66;" |Gutturals  

|- style="background: #ffad66;" ! |Gutturals  

   | ka || kha || ga || gha || ṅa

   | ka || kha || ga || gha || ṅa

|-style="text-align: center;"  ! style="background: #ffad66;" |Palatals  

|- style="background: #ffad66;" ! |Palatals  

   | ca || cha || ja || jha || ña  

   | ca || cha || ja || jha || ña  

|-style="text-align: center;"  ! style="background: #ffad66;" |Retroflex  

|- style="background: #ffad66;" ! |Retroflex  

   | ṭa || ṭha || ḍa || ḍha || ṇa  

   | ṭa || ṭha || ḍa || ḍha || ṇa  

|-style="text-align: center;"  ! style="background: #ffad66;" |Dentals  

|- style="background: #ffad66;" ! |Dentals  

   | ta || tha || da || dha || na  

   | ta || tha || da || dha || na  

|-style="text-align: center;"  ! style="background: #ffad66;" |Labials  

|- style="background: #ffad66;" ! |Labials  

   | pa || pha || ba || bha || ma  

   | pa || pha || ba || bha || ma  

|}

|}

In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. The following list contains some of these surviving texts: Amoghanandini Shiksha, Apisali Shiksha (in sutra form), Aranya Shiksha, Atreya Shiksha, Avasananirnyaya Shiksha, Bharadvaja Shiksha, Chandra Shiksha of Chandragomin (sutra form), Charayaniya Shiksha, Galadrka Shiksha,  Kalanirnya Shiksha, Katyayani Shiksha, Kaundinya Shiksha, Keshavi Shiksha, Kramakarika Shiksha, Kramasandhaana Shiksha, Laghumoghanandini Shiksha, Lakshmikanta Shiksha, Lomashi Shiksha, Madhyandina Shiksha, Mandavya Shiksha, Mallasharmakrta Shiksha, Manasvaara Shiksha, Manduki Shiksha, Naradiya Shiksha, Paniniya Shiksha (versified), Paniniya Shiksha (in sutra form), Paniniya Shiksha (with accents), Parashari Shiksha, Padyaatmika Keshavi Shiksha, Pari Shiksha, Pratishakhyapradipa Shiksha, Sarvasammata Shiksha, Shaishiriya Shiksha, Shamaana Shiksha, Shambhu Shiksha, Shodashashloki Shiksha, Shikshasamgraha, Siddhanta Shiksha, Svaraankusha Shiksha, Svarashtaka Shiksha, Svaravyanjana Shiksha, Vasishtha Shiksha, Varnaratnapradipa Shiksha, Vyaali Shiksha, Vyasa Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha.

In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. The following list contains some of these surviving texts: Amoghanandini Shiksha, Apisali Shiksha (in sutra form), Aranya Shiksha, Atreya Shiksha, Avasananirnyaya Shiksha, Bharadvaja Shiksha, Chandra Shiksha of Chandragomin (sutra form), Charayaniya Shiksha, Galadrka Shiksha,  Kalanirnya Shiksha, Katyayani Shiksha, Kaundinya Shiksha, Keshavi Shiksha, Kramakarika Shiksha, Kramasandhaana Shiksha, Laghumoghanandini Shiksha, Lakshmikanta Shiksha, Lomashi Shiksha, Madhyandina Shiksha, Mandavya Shiksha, Mallasharmakrta Shiksha, Manasvaara Shiksha, Manduki Shiksha, Naradiya Shiksha, Paniniya Shiksha (versified), Paniniya Shiksha (in sutra form), Paniniya Shiksha (with accents), Parashari Shiksha, Padyaatmika Keshavi Shiksha, Pari Shiksha, Pratishakhyapradipa Shiksha, Sarvasammata Shiksha, Shaishiriya Shiksha, Shamaana Shiksha, Shambhu Shiksha, Shodashashloki Shiksha, Shikshasamgraha, Siddhanta Shiksha, Svaraankusha Shiksha, Svarashtaka Shiksha, Svaravyanjana Shiksha, Vasishtha Shiksha, Varnaratnapradipa Shiksha, Vyaali Shiksha, Vyasa Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha.

Although many of these Shiksha texts are attached to specific Vedic schools, others are late texts.

Although many of these Shiksha texts are attached to specific Vedic schools, others are later day texts.

==Sound and alphabet==

==Sound and alphabet==

:: '''Śvāsa''': [[Unvoiced]]

:: '''Śvāsa''': [[Unvoiced]]

:: '''Nāda''': [[Voiced]]

:: '''Nāda''': [[Voiced]]

==See also==

==See also==