Padarthas (पदार्थाः)
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Padarthas (Samskrit : पदार्थाः) or entities (substances) relate to categories of matter, or substance in general. Darshana shastras however, describe that whatever is knowable is denoted by a certain word and whose true knowledge of leads to attainment of the Nihshreyasa. Nyaya Darshana begins with Gautama's exposition of the nature of an entity or substance which belongs to the one of the sixteen categories. Vaiseshika also propounds the similar concept of Padarthas but vary in the number of categories accepted viz., six.
परिचयः॥ Introduction
The unique concept of Padarthas (पदार्थाः) is introduced in Nyaya and Vaiseshika darshanas which are two of the astika Shad Darshanas. Padarthas are entities of whose enumeration is essential for attainment of Nihshreyasa according to Nyaya.[1]
The very first sutra in Nyaya darshana given by Gautama expounds sixteen categories of things or substances whereas Vaiseshika expounded by Kanada divides all nameable things into six classes by a subtle process of analysis and synthesis.[2] Thus it many be noted that attainment of Nihshreyasa (Moksha) or the ultimate good is the purpose of describing padarthas in all shastras.
Etymology
The term Padartha (पदार्थः) formed from the combination of the words Pada (पद) or Word and Artha (आर्थ) or Meaning. In general it means 'technical terminology'. According to Sapta Padarthi, all knowable things are Padarthas.[3]
प्रमितिविषयाः पदार्थाः । pramitiviṣayāḥ padārthāḥ ।
Those which are subjected to valid knowledge are called Padarthas. Ayurveda uses this definition from the Vaiseshika philosophy.
Tatvabhasha, mentions that the group of varnas (in the context of Vyakarana) or syllables is called pada and it's meaning is called Padartha.
Padartha Lakshana
In general, Padartha is defined as any material, a substance, a thing. Tarkadipika describes that the ability of assigning "nomenclature" (i.e., 'naming' any substance) is the general definition of Padartha.
अभिधेयत्वम् पदार्थ सामान्य लाक्षणं ॥ abhidhēyatvam padārtha sāmānya lākṣaṇaṁ ||[3]
A deeper scientific meaning of padartha is different. Sankhya and Vaiseshika darshanas define that an object denoted by a word (pada) is known as Padartha. Whatever knowable is described by a certain word, all knowable things are described by their respective words; hence are called Padarthas (plural). All substances, their qualities, actions, species, and mutual relations and even the negation of these are mentioned as padarthas.[3] Prashastapada, the commentator of Vaiseshika Sutras, mentions three common characteristic features for Padartha. [3]
षण्णामपि पदार्थानामस्तित्वाभिधेयत्वज्ञेयत्वानि । ṣaṇṇāmapi padārthānāmastitvābhidhēyatvajñēyatvāni |
He states that the six categories or Padarthas have three characteristic features in common, viz.,
- अस्तित्वम् ॥ Astitva (Existence) : Every Padartha should have existence. There is no purpose without astitvam.
- आभिदेयत्वम् ॥ Abhidheyatvam (Nomenclature) : Every padartha which exists should have a name which denotes only that padartha specifically. So all padarthas have their unique names.
- ज्ञेयत्वम् ॥ Jneyatva (Knowability) : The knowledge about every padartha, which exists, is obtained through its nomenclature only.
Division, Classification and Number of Padarthas
There are different schools of thought regarding the division, classification and number of padarthas.[3][4]
| Text/Darshana/Author | Number of Padarthas | Sutra/Reference No | List of Padarthas | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shankaracharya[4] | 1 | Brahma | ||
| Vedanta[3] | 2 | Atma and Anatma | ||
| Ayurveda[4] | Charaka | 2 | Cha.Sa. SutraSthana 11/17 | Bhava Padartha, Abhava Padartha |
| Chakrapani | 2 | Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 11/17] | Satta Siddha, Asatta/Bhati Siddha | |
| Bhavaprakasha | 2 | Dravyagata 5 Padartha-
Dravya, Rasa, Guna, Vipaka, Shakti | ||
| Ramanujacharya, Nimbarkacharya[5] | 3 | Chit. Achit, Ishvar | ||
| Mimamsa/Kumarila Bhatta | 5 | Dravya, Guna, Karma, Samanya, Abhava | ||
| Vaiseshika Darshana | 6 | ....द्रव्यगुणकर्मसामान्य विशेषसमवायानां पदार्थानां... (। वैशेषिक-१,१.४ ।) |
| |
| Tarka Sangraha | 7 | द्रव्य-गुण-कर्म-सामान्य-विशेष-समवायाऽभावाः सप्त पदार्थाः॥१॥[6] |
| |
| Mimamsa/Prabhakara Bhatta | 8 | Dravya, Guna, Karma, Samanya, Vishesha, Samavaya, Shakti, Sadrishya, Sankhya | ||
| Madhavacharya[3] | 10 | Dravya, Guna, Karma, Samanya, Vishesha, Vishita, Anshi, Shadrisha, Shakti, Abhava | ||
| Nyaya Darshana | 16 | प्रमाण-प्रमेय-संशय-प्रयोजन-दृष्टान्त-सिद्धान्तावयव-तर्क-निर्णय-वाद-जल्प-वितण्डा-हेत्वाभास-च्छल-जाति-निग्रहस्थानानां तत्वज्ञानान्निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ॥१॥ {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.1) |
| |
| Sankhya[7] | 25 | Basic realms or components of the evolution of the universe, namely the Avyakta, Purusha, Mahat, Ahankara, Pancha Tanmatra, Ekadasha Indriya,
Panchamahabhuta | ||
| Yoga | 26 | 25 components put forth by sankhya along with Ishvara component | ||
षोडशपदार्थाः ॥ Sixteen Categories as per Nyaya Siddhanta
Nyaya expounds the shodasha padarthas or sixteen entities, the knowledge of the real essence (or true character) of which leads one to the ultimate goal.
प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानां तत्वज्ञानान्निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ॥१॥ {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.1)[8] pramāṇapramēyasaṁśayaprayōjanadr̥ṣṭāntasiddhāntāvayavatarkanirṇayavādajalpavitaṇḍāhētvābhāsacchalajātinigrahasthānānāṁ tatvajñānānniḥśrēyasādhigamaḥ ॥1॥ {padārthōddēśasūtram} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.1)
They are as discussed as follows with reference to pages 22-30 of Mm. Sri. Ganganatha Jha's translation[1] and pages 294-296 of Dr. Surendranath Dasgupta's books on Indian Philosophy (Volume 1)[9].
- 1. प्रमाणम् ॥ Pramana (Perception)
- Pramana is defined as the instrument of right cognition. Four pramanas accepted by Nyaya are Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana and Shabda given by sutra
प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ॥ ३ ॥ {प्रमाणौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3)[8] pratyakṣānumānōpamānaśabdāḥ pramāṇāni ॥ 3 ॥ {pramāṇauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3)
- 2. प्रमेयम् ॥ Prameya (Object)
- It is the object identified by right cognition. Nyaya enlists 12 kinds of prameya given in sutra
आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम्॥ ९ ॥{प्रमेयौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.9)[8] ātmaśarīrēndriyārthabuddhimanaḥpravr̥ttidōṣaprētyabhāvaphaladuḥkhāpavargāḥ tu pramēyam॥ 9 ॥{pramēyauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.9)
Both Pramana and Prameya have been extensively discussed under the heading Pramana.
- 3. संशयः ॥ Samshaya (Doubt)
- It appears as "or" and "is this thing this or that". Doubt is the uncertain idea that we have of things and is a necessary factor, the very basis, of the process of Reasoning.
समानानेकधर्मोपपत्तेः विप्रतिपत्तेः उपलब्ध्यनुपलब्ध्यव्यवस्थातः च विशेषापेक्षः विमर्शः संशयः ॥२३॥ {संशयलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.23)[8] samānānēkadharmōpapattēḥ vipratipattēḥ upalabdhyanupalabdhyavyavasthātaḥ ca viśēṣāpēkṣaḥ vimarśaḥ saṁśayaḥ ॥23॥ {saṁśayalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.23)
- 4. प्रयोजनम् ॥ Prayojana (Motive)
- It is that, on being urged, by which a man has recourse to activity, i.e., with a desire either to obtain or reject a man is motivated into Action. Proyojana or motive is the basis of all reasoning or investigation according to Nyaya. Motive bears upon all living beings, all actions and all shastras.
यं अर्थं अधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते तत्प्रयोजनम् ॥२४॥{प्रयोजनलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.24)[8] yaṁ arthaṁ adhikr̥tya pravartatē tatprayōjanam ॥24॥{prayōjanalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.24)
- 5. दृष्टान्तः ॥ Drshtanta (Example)
- It is something that is directly comprehended, without any need for proof and so is self-evident. It is something which cannot fail to be known or perceived. It can be called as object of cognition (Prameya) but is mentioned separately, because Anumana and Shabda pramanas are both dependent upon it for only through a Drsthanta can they explained. Thus Drshtanta forms the basis on which Reasoning proceeds and is required even to demolish an opponent's position and establish one's stand on a theory.
लौकिकपरीक्षकाणां यस्मिनर्थे बुद्धिसाम्यं सः दृष्टान्तः ॥२५॥ {दृष्टान्तलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.25)[8] laukikaparīkṣakāṇāṁ yasminarthē buddhisāmyaṁ saḥ dr̥ṣṭāntaḥ ॥25॥ {dr̥ṣṭāntalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.25)
- 6. सिद्धान्तः ॥ Siddhanta (Theory or Accepted Conclusions)
- Siddhanta (सिद्धान्तः) A proposition or statement of fact asserted in the form "this is so" is called Theory. This also can be an object of cognition but yet is enunciated separately by itself because it is only when there are a number of different theories, and never otherwise, that the three forms of Debate - Discussion, Disagreement and Arguments.
तन्त्राधिकरणाभ्युपगमसंस्थितिः सिद्धान्तः ॥२६॥ {अभ्युपगमसिद्धान्तलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.26)[8] tantrādhikaraṇābhyupagamasaṁsthitiḥ siddhāntaḥ ॥26॥ {abhyupagamasiddhāntalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.26)
- Doctrine or Theory is a final, well determined conviction (of people) with regard to the exact nature of any particular thing dealt with by Tantra (standing for the teachings in connection with things related with one another).
- 7. अवयवः ॥ Avayavas (Factors of Inference or Premises)
- When a conclusion has to be made, a number of words or sentences (Statements) have to be used. The Pancha Avayavas (अवयवाः) are the 5 types of Statements or Premises that are necessary to prove a certain conclusion. They are Pratijna, Hetu, Udaharana, Upanaya and Nigamana which when taken collectively are called as Factors of Inference.
प्रतिज्ञाहेतूदाहरणोपनयनिगमनानि अवयवाः ॥३२॥ {अवयवौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.32)[8] pratijñāhētūdāharaṇōpanayanigamanāni avayavāḥ ॥32॥ {avayavauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.32)
- 8. तर्कः ॥ Tarka (Argumentation)
- It leads to the ascertainment of their validity or invalidity and thus helps in the attaining of true knowledge. Though a category of the Prameya it is enunciated separately because along with the Pramana it is of use in Debate, both in establishing one's own position and in demolishing the position of the opponent.[1] Tarka means the deliberation on an unknown thing to discern its real nature. (Page 360 of Reference [9]).
अविज्ञाततत्वे अर्थे कारणोपपत्तितः तत्त्वज्ञानार्थं उहः तर्कः॥४०॥{तर्कलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.40)[8] avijñātatatvē arthē kāraṇōpapattitaḥ tattvajñānārthaṁ uhaḥ tarkaḥ॥40॥{tarkalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.40)
- 9. निर्णयः ॥ Nirnaya (Ascertainment, Validated Truth)
- It is the conclusion which consists of true knowledge obtained as the result of the Pramana. It is the final aim of all Debate or Vada which is ascertained after duly deliberating over the two sides of the question.
विमृश्य पक्षप्रतिपक्षाभ्यां अर्थावधारणं निर्णयः॥४१॥ {निर्णयलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.41)[8] vimr̥śya pakṣapratipakṣābhyāṁ arthāvadhāraṇaṁ nirṇayaḥ॥41॥ {nirṇayalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.41)
- 10. वादः ॥ Vada (Debate)
- It consists of a number of statements (sentences, declarations) put forward by various speakers, purporting to be proofs and reasonings in support of and condemnation of several siddhantas. These two conceptions proceed hand in hand until one of them becomes rejected and leading ultimately to the acceptance of one of them as the validated truth or Nirnaya.
प्रमाणतर्कसाधनोपालम्भः सिद्धान्ताविरुद्धः पञ्चावयवोपपन्नः पक्षप्रतिपक्षपरिग्रहः वादः ॥१॥ {वादलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.1)[10] pramāṇatarkasādhanōpālambhaḥ siddhāntāviruddhaḥ pañcāvayavōpapannaḥ pakṣapratipakṣaparigrahaḥ vādaḥ ॥1॥ {vādalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.1)
- 11. जल्पः ॥ Jalpa (Disputations)
- Jalpa is endowed with the following characteristics - a) it puts forward a conception and counter-conception b) consists in supporting and condemning by means of proofs and reasonings c) is not opposed to the main doctrine and d) is carried on in full accordance with the method of reasoning through five factors according to Vatsyayana bhashya. Jalpa differs from Vada in that it admits the use of deceptiveness (Casuistry) etc which is not allowed in vada. Jalpa is that which is endowed with the said characteristics and in which there is supporting and condemnation by means of Chhala, Jati and Nigrahastana.
यथोक्तोपपन्नः छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानसाधनोपालम्भः जल्पः ॥२॥ {जल्पलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.2)[10] yathōktōpapannaḥ chalajātinigrahasthānasādhanōpālambhaḥ jalpaḥ ॥2॥ {jalpalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.2)
- 12. वितण्डा ॥ Vitanda (Destructive Criticism)
- Vitanda also differs from vada in that it does not tend to the establishment of any position which is not so in the case of Vada where a conclusion is arrived at. Disputation (Jalpa) becomes Vitanda when there is no establishment of the counter-conception.
सः प्रतिपक्षस्थापनाहीनः वितण्डा ॥३॥ {वितण्डालक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.3)[10] saḥ pratipakṣasthāpanāhīnaḥ vitaṇḍā ॥3॥ {vitaṇḍālakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.3)
- 13. हेत्वाभासः ॥ Hetvabhasa (Fallacy)
- Hetvabhasa (हेत्वाभासः) are so called because they do not possess all the characteristics of the true hetus discussed in 1.1.32, yet they are sufficiently similar to them to appear like them.
सव्यभिचारविरुद्धप्रकरणसमसाध्यसमकालातीताः हेत्वाभासाः ॥४॥ {हेत्वाभासौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.4)[10] savyabhicāraviruddhaprakaraṇasamasādhyasamakālātītāḥ hētvābhāsāḥ ॥4॥ {hētvābhāsauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.4)
- 14. च्छलः ॥ Chhala (Minor deception)
- Chhala (च्छलः) consists in opposing a proposition by assigning to it a meaning other than the one intended. It is of three kinds.
वचनविघातः अर्थविकल्पोपपत्त्या छलम् ॥१०॥{छललक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.10)[10] vacanavighātaḥ arthavikalpōpapattyā chalam ॥10॥{chalalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.10)
- 15. जातिः ॥ Jati (Refutation)
- Refutation is that objection which is taken on the basis of mere similarity and dissimilarity.
साधर्म्यवैधर्म्याभ्यां प्रत्यवस्थानं जातिः॥१८॥ {जातिलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.18)[10] sādharmyavaidharmyābhyāṁ pratyavasthānaṁ jātiḥ॥18॥ {jātilakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.18)
- 16. निग्रहस्थानम् ॥ Nigrahasthana (Points of opponent's defeat)
- Nigrahastana is when there is Misapprehension and Incomprehension. Misapprehension is that comprehension which is either wrong or reprehensible. Incomprehension is when a person does not say anything in the instance where it is required of him to say so. Both these leads a man to defeat.
विप्रतिपत्तिः अप्रतिपत्तिः च निग्रहस्थानम् ॥१९॥ {निग्रहस्थानलक्षणम्} तद्विकल्पात्जातिनिग्रहस्थानबहुत्वम् ॥२०॥ {निग्रहस्थानबहुत्वसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.19 and 20)[10] vipratipattiḥ apratipattiḥ ca nigrahasthānam ॥19॥ {nigrahasthānalakṣaṇam} tadvikalpātjātinigrahasthānabahutvam ॥20॥ {nigrahasthānabahutvasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.19 and 20)
पदार्थज्ञानाप्रयोजनम् ॥ Padartha Jnana Prayojana
The Nyaya shastra explicitly dealing with the process of Reasoning, Means of right cognition and other Padarthas (categories) is the lamp for all tattva shastras; the Means (of Knowledge) of all things and is the very basis of all activities of the universe and hence expounded at the very outset of investigative procedures. The very first Nyaya sutra states that the attainment of Nihshreyasa is the goal of the knowledge of Padarthas. Now does Nihshreyasa or the Ultimate Good appear immediately after gaining "true knowledge" or padartha jnana? to which the following sutra answers, that after gaining padartha jnana
दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरापायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.2)[8] duḥkhajanmapravr̥ttidōṣamithyājñānānāṁ uttarōttarāpāyē tadanantarāpāyātapavargaḥ।।2।। {padārthōddēśasūtram} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.2)
There is cessation of each of the following series, the cessation of that which follows brings about the annihilation of that which precedes it and ultimately leads to Nihshreyasa or the Ultimate Good of any being.[1]
- मिथ्याज्ञानम् ॥ Wrong Notion
- दोषः ॥ Defects (such as Envy, Jealousy, Deceit, Avarice and others)
- प्रवृत्तिः ॥ Activity (Merits arising from Dharmika pravrtti and Demerits arising from Adharma)
- जन्म ॥ Birth (Activity becomes the cause of mean and respectable birth)
- दुःख ॥ Pain (When there is birth there is pain (दुःख) suffering (पीडा) and affliction (तापम्))
Of the मिथ्याज्ञानानि (Wrong Notions), that cease after the attainment of true knowledge, there are various kinds as follows
| Reference | मिथ्याज्ञानाम् ॥ Wrong Notion | सत्यज्ञानम् ॥ Truth |
|---|---|---|
| आत्मन् (Atman or Self) | There is no such thing as Atma | Atma exists |
| अनात्मा Non-Self (such as body etc) is regarded as Self | What is Non-Self is non-self | |
| दुःख (Pain) and others | Pain is regarded as pleasure | Pain is distinct from pleasure, so also real characteristics of others Eternal, Safety, Fearful, disgusting, and unworthy are known. |
| Non-eternal is regarded as Eternal | ||
| Non-safety is regarded as Safety | ||
| Fearful is regarded as free from fear | ||
| Disgusting is regarded as agreeable | ||
| Unworthy is regarded as worthy | ||
| प्रवृत्तिः (Activity) | There is no such thing as Karma | Karma exists and is effective in bring about results |
| There is no result of Karma | ||
| दोषः (Defects) | Punarjanma (transmigration) is not due to 'defects' | Punarjanma (transmigration) is due to Doshas |
| जन्म (Birth) | No living being, an animal, Atma having died could be reborn again | An animal, a living being, an Atma after death (physical) is reborn |
| The birth of living beings is without a cause | Birth has a definite cause | |
| The cessation of birth is without cause | Cessation of birth has a definite cause namely Death | |
| Punarjanma (Transmigration) has beginning, but no end | Punarjanma is without beginning but ends in Jivanmukti or Moksha | |
| Even though it has a cause, Punarjanma cannot be due to Karma | Death and Punarjanma having a cause, is caused by Activity (meritorious or with demerit) | |
| Punarjanma consists only in disruption (at death) and restoration (at rebirth) of the chain of such things as the body, the sense-organs, the Consciousness and sensation. | Death and Birth is connected with the Atman and operates through disruption and restoration of the continuous connection of such things as the sense-organs, the consciousness and sensation. | |
| Nihshreyasa (Ultimate Good) Moksha | It is something terrible, involving cessation of all activity | Jivanmukti - Cessation and dissociation from all things and from all activity is extremely peaceful. All that is painful, frightful and wrongful disappears on mukti. |
| Involves dissociation from all things, including that which is desirable | ||
| A longing for such Ultimate Good in which there is neither pleasure nor pain, nor any consciousness is undesirable | What is peaceful is always longed for and desired by any sane person. Mukti involves freedom from pain and pleasure also because all pleasure is invariably connected with some pain and should be avoided. |
When true knowledge of the Padarthas is attained, the Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम् । wrong notions) disappear; on whose disappearance the Doshas (।) disappear; followed by the disappearance of Prvrtti (।). When activity ceases, there is no Punarjanma, when there is no birth there is no pain. Cessation of pain leads to Jivanmukti which itself is Nihshreyasa (Moksha). (PDF Page number 34 of Reference [1])
The process of Reasoning proceeds by three steps, Enunciation, Definition and Examination.
षड्पदार्थाः ॥ Six Categories as per Vaiseshika Siddhanta
In Vaiseshika Darshana, Visesha Padarthas were described specially and specifically. Hence it is called Vaiseshika Darshana. Maharshi Kanada, the author of Vaiseshika Darshana, describes six Padarthas namely,
धर्मविशेष प्रसूतात् द्रव्यगुणकर्मसामान्य विशेषसमवायानां पदार्थानां साधर्म्यवैधर्म्याभ्यां तत्त्वज्ञानान्निःश्रेयसम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.४ । dharmaviśēṣa prasūtāt dravyaguṇakarmasāmānya viśēṣasamavāyānāṁ padārthānāṁ sādharmyavaidharmyābhyāṁ tattvajñānānniḥśrēyasam | vaiśēṣika-1,1.4 |
Dravya (Substance), Guna (Attribute or Quality), Karma (Action), Samanya (Generic concommitance),
They are defined as follows
Dravya : पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.५ ।
Gunas : रुपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ ।
Karma : उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ ।
Samanya : सामान्यविशेष इति बुद्ध्यपेक्षम् । वैशेषिक-१,२.३ । भावो ऽनुवृत्तेरेव हेतुत्वात् सामान्यमेव । वैशेषिक-१,२.४ ।
Visesha : Proved by inference from above sutra 1.2.4
Samavaya : इहेदमिति यतः कार्यकारणयोः स समवायः । वैशेषिक-७,२.२६ ।
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) Gautama's Nyayasutras With Vatsyayana Bhashya. Poona : Oriental Book Agency. (Page no 20)
- ↑ Sinha, Nandalal. (1923) The Vaiseshika Sutras of Kanada. Allahabad : The Panini Office
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Narasimhacharyulu, K.V.L (2010) 4th ed. Padartha Vijnana, Chapter 1, Padartha Lakshana, Varanasi: Chaukhamba Krishnadas Academy
- ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 Joglekar, Aishwarya & Bhojani, Meera. (2022). Padartha. DOI -10.47468/CSNE.2022.e01.s09.099.
- ↑ Harilal R Shivahare, Padartha Vignyana, Adhyaya 1, edited 2017, Chaukhamba SurabharatiPrakashana, Varanasi, Page No.20
- ↑ Tarkasangraha
- ↑ Ishwar Krishna, Sankhyakarika with Gaudapadabhashya, Shloka No.3, Edited 2019,Chaukahamba Surbharati Prakashana, Varanasi, Page No. 11-12
- ↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 Nyaya Sutras (Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1)
- ↑ 9.0 9.1 Dasgupta, Surendranath. (7th Reprint : 2012) A History of Indian Philosophy. Volume 1. New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 10.5 10.6 Nyaya Sutras (Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 2)