Padarthas (पदार्थाः)

Padarthas (Samskrit : पदार्थाः) or entities (substances) relate to categories of matter, or substance in general. Darshana shastras however, describe that whatever is knowable is denoted by a certain word and whose true knowledge of leads to attainment of the Nihshreyasa. Nyaya Darshana begins with Gautama's exposition of the nature of an entity or substance which belongs to the one of the sixteen categories. Vaiseshika also propounds the similar concept of Padarthas but vary in the number of categories accepted viz., six.

परिचयः॥ Introduction

The unique concept of Padarthas (पदार्थाः) is introduced in Nyaya and Vaiseshika darshanas which are two of the astika Shad Darshanas. Padarthas are entities of whose enumeration is essential for attainment of Nihshreyasa according to Nyaya.

The very first sutra in Nyaya darshana given by Gautama expounds sixteen categories of things or substances whereas Vaiseshika expounded by Kanada divides all nameable things into six classes by a subtle process of analysis and synthesis. Thus it many be noted that attainment of Nihshreyasa (Moksha) or the ultimate good is the purpose of describing padarthas in all shastras.

Etymology

The term Padartha (पदार्थः) formed from the combination of the words Pada (पद) or Word and Artha (आर्थ) or Meaning. In general it means 'technical terminology'. According to Sapta Padarthi, all knowable things are Padarthas.

प्रमितिविषयाः पदार्थाः । pramitiviṣayāḥ padārthāḥ ।

Those which are subjected to valid knowledge are called Padarthas. Ayurveda uses this definition from the Vaiseshika philosophy.

Tatvabhasha, mentions that the group of varnas (in the context of Vyakarana) or syllables is called pada and it's meaning is called Padartha.

पदार्थलाक्षणं॥ Padartha Lakshana

In general, Padartha is defined as any material, a substance, a thing. Tarkadipika describes that the ability of assigning "nomenclature" (i.e., 'naming' any substance) is the general definition of Padartha.

अभिधेयत्वम् पदार्थ सामान्य लाक्षणं ॥ abhidhēyatvam padārtha sāmānya lākṣaṇaṁ ||

A deeper scientific meaning of padartha is different. Sankhya and Vaiseshika darshanas define that an object denoted by a word (pada) is known as Padartha. Whatever knowable is described by a certain word, all knowable things are described by their respective words; hence are called Padarthas (plural). All substances, their qualities, actions, species, and mutual relations and even the negation of these are mentioned as padarthas. Prashastapada, the commentator of Vaiseshika Sutras, mentions three common characteristic features for Padartha.

षण्णामपि पदार्थानामस्तित्वाभिधेयत्वज्ञेयत्वानि । ṣaṇṇāmapi padārthānāmastitvābhidhēyatvajñēyatvāni |

He states that the six categories or Padarthas have three characteristic features in common, viz.,

1. अस्तित्वम् ॥ Astitva (Existence) : Every Padartha should have existence. There is no purpose without astitvam. It is subject to valid knowledge and excludes imagination.
2. आभिदेयत्वम् ॥ Abhidheyatvam (Nominality) : Every padartha which exists should have a name which denotes only that padartha specifically. So all padarthas have their unique names and can be described using words or expressions. Ex - A black horse is running.
3. ज्ञेयत्वम् ॥ Jneyatva (Knowability) : The knowledge about every padartha, which exists, is obtained through its nomenclature only. It is perceivable either directly or indirectly through the senses. When it is not directly perceivable, it is known through other pramanas such as inference or other's observation.

Division, Classification and Number of Padarthas

There are different schools of thought regarding the division, classification and number of padarthas. Every darshana shastra has its own set of categories that are used to describe its philosophy.

Classification of Padarthas as per different schools

Text/Darshana/Author		Number of Padarthas	Sutra/Reference No	List of Padarthas
Shankaracharya		1		Brahman
Vedanta		2		Atma and Anatma
Ayurveda	Charaka	2	Charaka Samhita SutraSthana 11/17	Bhava Padartha, Abhava Padartha
	Chakrapani	2	Chakrapani on Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 11/17]	Satta Siddha, Asatta/Bhati Siddha
	Bhavaprakasha	2		Dravyagata 5 Padartha- Dravya, Rasa, Guna, Vipaka, Shakti
Ramanujacharya, Nimbarkacharya		3		Chit. Achit, Ishvar
Mimamsa/Kumarila Bhatta		5		Dravya, Guna, Karma, Samanya, Abhava
Vaiseshika Darshana		6 + 1	....द्रव्यगुणकर्मसामान्य विशेषसमवायानां पदार्थानां... (। वैशेषिक-१,१.४ ।)	Dravya (द्रव्यः) Guna (गुणः) Karma (कर्म) Samanya (सामान्यः) Visesha (विशेषः) Samavaya (समवायः) Abhaava (non existence; included in later branches of Vaisheshika)
Tarka Sangraha		7	द्रव्य-गुण-कर्म-सामान्य-विशेष-समवायाऽभावाः सप्त पदार्थाः॥१॥	Dravya (द्रव्यः) Guna (गुणः) Karma (कर्म) Samanya (सामान्यः) Visesha (विशेषः) Samavaya (समवायः) Abhava (अभावम्)
Mimamsa/Prabhakara Bhatta		8		Dravya, Guna, Karma, Samanya, Vishesha, Samavaya, Shakti, Sadrishya, Sankhya
Madhavacharya		10		Dravya (Substance), Guna (Quality), Karma (Action), Samanya (Universality), Visesa (Particular), Visishta (the specified), Amshin (the whole), Shakti (Potency), Sadrshya (Similarity), Abhaava (non existence)
Nyaya Darshana		16	प्रमाण-प्रमेय-संशय-प्रयोजन-दृष्टान्त-सिद्धान्तावयव-तर्क-निर्णय-वाद-जल्प-वितण्डा-हेत्वाभास-च्छल-जाति-निग्रहस्थानानां तत्वज्ञानान्निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ॥१॥ {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.1)	Pramana (प्रमाणम्) Prameya (प्रमेयम्) Samsaya (संशयः) Prayojana (प्रयोजनम्) Drsthanta (दृष्टान्तः) Siddhanta (सिद्धान्तः) Avayava (अवयवः) Tarka (तर्कः) Nirnaya (निर्णयः) Vada (वादः) Jalpa (जल्पः) Vitanda (वितण्डा) Hetvabhasa (हेत्वाभासः) Chhala (छलः) Jati (जातिः) Nigrahasthana (निग्रहस्थानम्)
Sankhya		25		Basic realms or components of the evolution of the universe, namely the Purusha, Prakriti (Moola), Mahat, Ahamkara, Manas, 10 Indriyas, 5 Tanmatras, 5 Mahabhutas)
Yoga		26		25 components put forth by sankhya along with Ishvara component

पदार्थज्ञानाप्रयोजनम् ॥ Padartha Jnana Prayojana

The Nyaya shastra explicitly dealing with the process of Reasoning, Means of right cognition and other Padarthas (categories) is the lamp for all tattva shastras; the Means (of Knowledge) of all things and is the very basis of all activities of the universe and hence expounded at the very outset of investigative procedures. The very first Nyaya sutra states that the attainment of Nihshreyasa is the goal of the knowledge of Padarthas. Now does Nihshreyasa or the Ultimate Good appear immediately after gaining "true knowledge" or padartha jnana? to which the following sutra answers, that after gaining padartha jnana

दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरापायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.2) duḥkhajanmapravr̥ttidōṣamithyājñānānāṁ uttarōttarāpāyē tadanantarāpāyātapavargaḥ।।2।। {padārthōddēśasūtram} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.2)

There is cessation of each of the following series, the cessation of that which follows brings about the annihilation of that which precedes it and ultimately leads to Nihshreyasa or the Ultimate Good of any being.

• मिथ्याज्ञानम् ॥ Wrong Notion
• दोषः ॥ Defects (such as Envy, Jealousy, Deceit, Avarice and others)
• प्रवृत्तिः ॥ Activity (Merits arising from Dharmika pravrtti and Demerits arising from Adharma)
• जन्म ॥ Birth (Activity becomes the cause of mean and respectable birth)
• दुःख ॥ Pain (When there is birth there is pain (दुःख) suffering (पीडा) and affliction (तापम्))

Of the मिथ्याज्ञानानि (Wrong Notions), that cease after the attainment of true knowledge, there are various kinds as follows

Different forms of मिथ्याज्ञानाम् ॥ Wrong Notion and Comparison with Right Notion

Reference	मिथ्याज्ञानाम् ॥ Wrong Notion	सत्यज्ञानम् ॥ Truth
आत्मन् (Atman or Self)	There is no such thing as Atma	Atma exists
	अनात्मा Non-Self (such as body etc) is regarded as Self	What is Non-Self is non-self
दुःख (Pain) and others	Pain is regarded as pleasure	Pain is distinct from pleasure, so also real characteristics of others Eternal, Safety, Fearful, disgusting, and unworthy are known.
	Non-eternal is regarded as Eternal
	Non-safety is regarded as Safety
	Fearful is regarded as free from fear
	Disgusting is regarded as agreeable
	Unworthy is regarded as worthy
प्रवृत्तिः (Activity)	There is no such thing as Karma	Karma exists and is effective in bring about results
	There is no result of Karma
दोषः (Defects)	Punarjanma (transmigration) is not due to 'defects'	Punarjanma (transmigration) is due to Doshas
जन्म (Birth)	No living being, an animal, Atma having died could be reborn again	An animal, a living being, an Atma after death (physical) is reborn
	The birth of living beings is without a cause	Birth has a definite cause
	The cessation of birth is without cause	Cessation of birth has a definite cause namely Death
	Punarjanma (Transmigration) has beginning, but no end	Punarjanma is without beginning but ends in Jivanmukti or Moksha
	Even though it has a cause, Punarjanma cannot be due to Karma	Death and Punarjanma having a cause, is caused by Activity (meritorious or with demerit)
	Punarjanma consists only in disruption (at death) and restoration (at rebirth) of the chain of such things as the body, the sense-organs, the Consciousness and sensation.	Death and Birth is connected with the Atman and operates through disruption and restoration of the continuous connection of such things as the sense-organs, the consciousness and sensation.
Nihshreyasa (Ultimate Good) Moksha	It is something terrible, involving cessation of all activity	Jivanmukti - Cessation and dissociation from all things and from all activity is extremely peaceful. All that is painful, frightful and wrongful disappears on mukti.
	Involves dissociation from all things, including that which is desirable
	A longing for such Ultimate Good in which there is neither pleasure nor pain, nor any consciousness is undesirable	What is peaceful is always longed for and desired by any sane person. Mukti involves freedom from pain and pleasure also because all pleasure is invariably connected with some pain and should be avoided.

When true knowledge of the Padarthas is attained, the Mithyajnana (मिथ्याज्ञानम् । wrong notions) disappear; on whose disappearance the Doshas disappear; followed by the disappearance of Prvrtti. When activity ceases, there is no Punarjanma, when there is no birth there is no pain. Cessation of pain leads to Jivanmukti which itself is Nihshreyasa (Moksha).

The process of Reasoning proceeds by three steps, Enunciation, Definition and Examination.

षोडशपदार्थाः ॥ Sixteen Categories as per Nyaya Siddhanta

Nyaya expounds the shodasha padarthas or sixteen entities, the knowledge of the real essence (or true character) of which leads one to the ultimate goal.

प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानां तत्वज्ञानान्निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ॥१॥ {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.1) pramāṇapramēyasaṁśayaprayōjanadr̥ṣṭāntasiddhāntāvayavatarkanirṇayavādajalpavitaṇḍāhētvābhāsacchalajātinigrahasthānānāṁ tatvajñānānniḥśrēyasādhigamaḥ ॥1॥ {padārthōddēśasūtram} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.1)

They are as discussed as follows with reference to pages 22-30 of Mm. Sri. Ganganatha Jha's translation and pages 294-296 of Dr. Surendranath Dasgupta's books on Indian Philosophy (Volume 1).

1. प्रमाणम् ॥ Pramana (Perception)

Pramana is defined as the instrument of right cognition. Four pramanas accepted by Nyaya are Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana and Shabda given by sutra

प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ॥ ३ ॥ {प्रमाणौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3) pratyakṣānumānōpamānaśabdāḥ pramāṇāni ॥ 3 ॥ {pramāṇauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3)

2. प्रमेयम् ॥ Prameya (Object)

It is the object identified by right cognition. Nyaya enlists 12 kinds of prameya given in sutra

आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम्॥ ९ ॥{प्रमेयौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.9) ātmaśarīrēndriyārthabuddhimanaḥpravr̥ttidōṣaprētyabhāvaphaladuḥkhāpavargāḥ tu pramēyam॥ 9 ॥{pramēyauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.9)

Both Pramana and Prameya have been extensively discussed under the heading Pramana.

3. संशयः ॥ Samshaya (Doubt)

It appears as "or" and "is this thing this or that". Doubt is the uncertain idea that we have of things and is a necessary factor, the very basis, of the process of Reasoning.

समानानेकधर्मोपपत्तेः विप्रतिपत्तेः उपलब्ध्यनुपलब्ध्यव्यवस्थातः च विशेषापेक्षः विमर्शः संशयः ॥२३॥ {संशयलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.23) samānānēkadharmōpapattēḥ vipratipattēḥ upalabdhyanupalabdhyavyavasthātaḥ ca viśēṣāpēkṣaḥ vimarśaḥ saṁśayaḥ ॥23॥ {saṁśayalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.23)

4. प्रयोजनम् ॥ Prayojana (Motive)

It is that, on being urged, by which a man has recourse to activity, i.e., with a desire either to obtain or reject a man is motivated into Action. Proyojana or motive is the basis of all reasoning or investigation according to Nyaya. Motive bears upon all living beings, all actions and all shastras.

यं अर्थं अधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते तत्प्रयोजनम् ॥२४॥{प्रयोजनलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.24) yaṁ arthaṁ adhikr̥tya pravartatē tatprayōjanam ॥24॥{prayōjanalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.24)

5. दृष्टान्तः ॥ Drshtanta (Example)

It is something that is directly comprehended, without any need for proof and so is self-evident. It is something which cannot fail to be known or perceived. It can be called as object of cognition (Prameya) but is mentioned separately, because Anumana and Shabda pramanas are both dependent upon it for only through a Drsthanta can they explained. Thus Drshtanta forms the basis on which Reasoning proceeds and is required even to demolish an opponent's position and establish one's stand on a theory.

लौकिकपरीक्षकाणां यस्मिनर्थे बुद्धिसाम्यं सः दृष्टान्तः ॥२५॥ {दृष्टान्तलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.25) laukikaparīkṣakāṇāṁ yasminarthē buddhisāmyaṁ saḥ dr̥ṣṭāntaḥ ॥25॥ {dr̥ṣṭāntalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.25)

6. सिद्धान्तः ॥ Siddhanta (Theory or Accepted Conclusions)

Siddhanta (सिद्धान्तः) A proposition or statement of fact asserted in the form "this is so" is called Theory. This also can be an object of cognition but yet is enunciated separately by itself because it is only when there are a number of different theories, and never otherwise, that the three forms of Debate - Discussion, Disagreement and Arguments.

तन्त्राधिकरणाभ्युपगमसंस्थितिः सिद्धान्तः ॥२६॥ {अभ्युपगमसिद्धान्तलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.26) tantrādhikaraṇābhyupagamasaṁsthitiḥ siddhāntaḥ ॥26॥ {abhyupagamasiddhāntalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.26)

Doctrine or Theory is a final, well determined conviction (of people) with regard to the exact nature of any particular thing dealt with by Tantra (standing for the teachings in connection with things related with one another).

7. अवयवः ॥ Avayavas (Factors of Inference or Premises)

When a conclusion has to be made, a number of words or sentences (Statements) have to be used. The Pancha Avayavas (अवयवाः) are the 5 types of Statements or Premises that are necessary to prove a certain conclusion. They are Pratijna, Hetu, Udaharana, Upanaya and Nigamana which when taken collectively are called as Factors of Inference.

प्रतिज्ञाहेतूदाहरणोपनयनिगमनानि अवयवाः ॥३२॥ {अवयवौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.32) pratijñāhētūdāharaṇōpanayanigamanāni avayavāḥ ॥32॥ {avayavauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.32)

8. तर्कः ॥ Tarka (Argumentation)

It leads to the ascertainment of their validity or invalidity and thus helps in the attaining of true knowledge. Though a category of the Prameya it is enunciated separately because along with the Pramana it is of use in Debate, both in establishing one's own position and in demolishing the position of the opponent. Tarka means the deliberation on an unknown thing to discern its real nature. (Page 360 of Reference ).

अविज्ञाततत्वे अर्थे कारणोपपत्तितः तत्त्वज्ञानार्थं उहः तर्कः॥४०॥{तर्कलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.40) avijñātatatvē arthē kāraṇōpapattitaḥ tattvajñānārthaṁ uhaḥ tarkaḥ॥40॥{tarkalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.40)

9. निर्णयः ॥ Nirnaya (Ascertainment, Validated Truth)

It is the conclusion which consists of true knowledge obtained as the result of the Pramana. It is the final aim of all Debate or Vada which is ascertained after duly deliberating over the two sides of the question.

विमृश्य पक्षप्रतिपक्षाभ्यां अर्थावधारणं निर्णयः॥४१॥ {निर्णयलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.41) vimr̥śya pakṣapratipakṣābhyāṁ arthāvadhāraṇaṁ nirṇayaḥ॥41॥ {nirṇayalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.41)

10. वादः ॥ Vada (Debate)

It consists of a number of statements (sentences, declarations) put forward by various speakers, purporting to be proofs and reasonings in support of and condemnation of several siddhantas. These two conceptions proceed hand in hand until one of them becomes rejected and leading ultimately to the acceptance of one of them as the validated truth or Nirnaya.

प्रमाणतर्कसाधनोपालम्भः सिद्धान्ताविरुद्धः पञ्चावयवोपपन्नः पक्षप्रतिपक्षपरिग्रहः वादः ॥१॥ {वादलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.1) pramāṇatarkasādhanōpālambhaḥ siddhāntāviruddhaḥ pañcāvayavōpapannaḥ pakṣapratipakṣaparigrahaḥ vādaḥ ॥1॥ {vādalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.1)

11. जल्पः ॥ Jalpa (Disputations)

Jalpa is endowed with the following characteristics - a) it puts forward a conception and counter-conception b) consists in supporting and condemning by means of proofs and reasonings c) is not opposed to the main doctrine and d) is carried on in full accordance with the method of reasoning through five factors according to Vatsyayana bhashya. Jalpa differs from Vada in that it admits the use of deceptiveness (Casuistry) etc which is not allowed in vada. Jalpa is that which is endowed with the said characteristics and in which there is supporting and condemnation by means of Chhala, Jati and Nigrahastana.

यथोक्तोपपन्नः छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानसाधनोपालम्भः जल्पः ॥२॥ {जल्पलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.2) yathōktōpapannaḥ chalajātinigrahasthānasādhanōpālambhaḥ jalpaḥ ॥2॥ {jalpalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.2)

12. वितण्डा ॥ Vitanda (Destructive Criticism)

Vitanda also differs from vada in that it does not tend to the establishment of any position which is not so in the case of Vada where a conclusion is arrived at. Disputation (Jalpa) becomes Vitanda when there is no establishment of the counter-conception.

सः प्रतिपक्षस्थापनाहीनः वितण्डा ॥३॥ {वितण्डालक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.3) saḥ pratipakṣasthāpanāhīnaḥ vitaṇḍā ॥3॥ {vitaṇḍālakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.3)

13. हेत्वाभासः ॥ Hetvabhasa (Fallacy)

Hetvabhasa (हेत्वाभासः) are so called because they do not possess all the characteristics of the true hetus discussed in 1.1.32, yet they are sufficiently similar to them to appear like them.

सव्यभिचारविरुद्धप्रकरणसमसाध्यसमकालातीताः हेत्वाभासाः ॥४॥ {हेत्वाभासौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.4) savyabhicāraviruddhaprakaraṇasamasādhyasamakālātītāḥ hētvābhāsāḥ ॥4॥ {hētvābhāsauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.4)

14. च्छलः ॥ Chhala (Minor deception)

Chhala (च्छलः) consists in opposing a proposition by assigning to it a meaning other than the one intended. It is of three kinds.

वचनविघातः अर्थविकल्पोपपत्त्या छलम् ॥१०॥{छललक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.10) vacanavighātaḥ arthavikalpōpapattyā chalam ॥10॥{chalalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.10)

15. जातिः ॥ Jati (Refutation)

Refutation is that objection which is taken on the basis of mere similarity and dissimilarity.

साधर्म्यवैधर्म्याभ्यां प्रत्यवस्थानं जातिः॥१८॥ {जातिलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.18) sādharmyavaidharmyābhyāṁ pratyavasthānaṁ jātiḥ॥18॥ {jātilakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.18)

16. निग्रहस्थानम् ॥ Nigrahasthana (Points of opponent's defeat)

Nigrahastana is when there is Misapprehension and Incomprehension. Misapprehension is that comprehension which is either wrong or reprehensible. Incomprehension is when a person does not say anything in the instance where it is required of him to say so. Both these leads a man to defeat.

विप्रतिपत्तिः अप्रतिपत्तिः च निग्रहस्थानम् ॥१९॥ {निग्रहस्थानलक्षणम्} तद्विकल्पात्जातिनिग्रहस्थानबहुत्वम् ॥२०॥ {निग्रहस्थानबहुत्वसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.19 and 20) vipratipattiḥ apratipattiḥ ca nigrahasthānam ॥19॥ {nigrahasthānalakṣaṇam} tadvikalpātjātinigrahasthānabahutvam ॥20॥ {nigrahasthānabahutvasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.19 and 20)

षड्पदार्थाः ॥ Six Categories as per Vaiseshika Siddhanta

Vaiseshika Darshana's physical worldview comprises of the fundamental entities (Matter, Energy, Space and Time), their interactions through various forces (gravitation, electricity, magnetism, etc.), various types of motion in various states of matter. Vaiseshika models the physical world in terms of the eternal atoms as the ultimate building blocks of the Universe - Atomic theory which continued till 18th century. While Nyaya concerns itself with epistemology or the earls of acquisition of valid knowledge, Vaiseshika concerns itself with the ontological aspects- or the constituents of the Universe itself. This is the fundamental difference between Nyaya and Vaiseshika darshanas which were merged historically. Sankhya also deals with the fundamental categories (as they arise in the space of mind) and therefore has some correspondence with Vaiseshika (in the physical world).

In Vaiseshika Darshana, Visesha Padarthas were described specially and specifically. Hence it is called Vaiseshika Darshana. Maharshi Kanada, the author of Vaiseshika Darshana, describes six Padarthas namely,

धर्मविशेष प्रसूतात् द्रव्यगुणकर्मसामान्य विशेषसमवायानां पदार्थानां साधर्म्यवैधर्म्याभ्यां तत्त्वज्ञानान्निःश्रेयसम् । वैशेषिक-१,१.४ । dharmaviśēṣa prasūtāt dravyaguṇakarmasāmānya viśēṣasamavāyānāṁ padārthānāṁ sādharmyavaidharmyābhyāṁ tattvajñānānniḥśrēyasam | vaiśēṣika-1,1.4 |

Dravya (Substance), Guna (Attribute or Quality), Karma (Action), Samanya (Generality), Visesha (Particularity), Samavaya (Inherence) are the six padarthas whose knowledge leads to Nihshreyasa.

All knowledge necessarily points to an object of knowledge and is called a padartha. Padarthas are classified into Bhava (being, positive entities) and Abhava (non-being, negative entities) in Vaiseshika. Six categories come under bhava and the seventh is abhava. A brief introduction each of the six categories is given below.

द्रव्याणि ॥ Dravya - Substance

Vaiseshika darshana defines nine Dravyas or Substances. They are causal in nature, hence called Karana Dravyas. Karya Dravyas are innumerable effect substances, produced by the combinations of Karana dravyas. These nine dravyas include material as well as spiritual substances. The Vaisesika philosophy is pluralistic and realistic but not materialistic since it admits spiritual substances (Atman).

• पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.५ । pr̥thivyāpastējō vāyurākāśaṁ kālō digātmā mana iti dravyāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.5 |
• Prthvi, Jala, Tejas, Vayu, Akasha, Kala, Dik, Atman and Manas are the only substances.
• The first five are the Panchabhutas (the five elements), Dik (direction), Kala (time) take care of spatial dimensions. Atman and Manas give life to organisms.
• Akasha, Dik, Kala and Atman are all-pervading and eternal. Atoms, Manas and Atman are infinite in number (hence Vaiseshika is pluralistic). Akasha, Dik and Kala are one each.
• Causal substances are considered to be independent and permanent.
• Dravya or substance is defined as the substratum where actions and qualities subsist.
• Knowledge of Dravya and others leads to Abhyudaya and Nihshreyasa.

गुणाः ॥ Gunas - Qualities

Guna or quality/attribute are seventeen in number as enumerated by Maharshi Kanada. Gunas or Qualities is a unique characteristic dependent on the substance or dravya. It cannot exist independently. Quality cannot possess another quality. A quality, therefore, is different from both substance and action. It is inherent and static in the substance and cannot be separated, just as sweetness can never be separated from sugar as long as sugar exists. The qualities are therefore called objective entities. They are not necessarily eternal. They include both material and mental qualities.

• रुपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । ruparasagandhasparśāḥ saṁkhyāḥ parimāṇāni pr̥thaktvaṁ saṁyōgavibhāgau paratvāparatvē buddhayaḥ sukhaduḥkhē icchādvēṣau prayatnāśca guṇāḥ | vaiśēṣika-1,1.6 |
• Rūpa (Colour), Rasa (Taste), Gandha (Smell), Sparśa (Touch), Saṅkhyā (Number), Parimāṇa (Dimension), Pṛthakatva​ (Distinctiveness), Saṃyoga (Conjunction), Vibhāga (Disjunction), Paratva (Priority), Aparatva (Posteriority), Buddhi (Knowledge), Sukha (Pleasure), Dukha (Pain), Icchā (Desire), Dveṣa (Aversion), Prayatna (Effort) are Gunas.
• Prasatapada, the 4th century scholar who greatly elaborated on Vaisesika Sutra, added seven more, namely, Gurutva (heaviness); Dravatva (fluidity); Sneha (softness, stickiness or viscidity); Dharma (merit or virtue); Adharma (demerit or non-virtue); Samskara (tendency, trait, habit); Shabda (sound or signal).
• Ayurveda Acharya Charaka added 17 gunas to gurutva, dravatva and Sneha, making the Qualities as 20 which are most important in practical Ayurveda.
• Smell is the quality of earth; taste of water; color of fire; touch of air; and sound of ether. Cognition, pleasure, pain, desire, aversion, volition are the mental qualities which inhere in the self.

कर्माणि॥ Karmas - Actions

Recognizing Karma or action as a category of reality was a special feature of Vaisesika philosophy. Like the quality or guna, Karma or action belongs to and inheres in a substance and also cannot exist on its own. It can exist only in relation to a substance or dravya. However, there is a difference, while quality is a static property of dravya, action is a dynamic and transient property. Unlike a quality, an action is the cause of conjunction and disjunction. Maharshi Kanada recognized only five types of actions. They are,

• उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |

• Throwing upwards (utksepanam), throwing downwards (avaksepanam), contraction (akunchanam), expansion (prasaranam), and going or motion (gamanam) mean action (karmani).
• A characteristic of Vaiśesika is the Kriya-vada or the doctrine of action. An individual is governed not only by the physical laws, but also by the moral law of Karma or action. In Kriya-vada the Jiva or individual soul is active and is affected by pleasure or desire etc. They, in their transmigratory existence in a body, suffer or enjoy depending on the past impressions (activities of the past lives). In the current life, the individual is free and creator of his own destiny. His meritorious or demeritorious acts leave impression on the soul and accordingly, soul will suffer or enjoy in its next incarnation.
• Based on the nature of activity, we have laukika (ordinary/daily activities) such as walking, running, talking etc., and alaukika karma (dharmik or spiritual activities) which include dana, homa, yajna etc.

सामान्यम् ॥ Samanya - Generality

• सामान्यविशेष इति बुद्ध्यपेक्षम् । वैशेषिक-१,२.३ । भावोऽनुवृत्तेरेव हेतुत्वात् सामान्यमेव । वैशेषिक-१,२.४। sāmānyaviśēṣa iti buddhyapēkṣam | vaiśēṣika-1,2.3 | bhāvō’nuvr̥ttērēva hētutvāt sāmānyamēva | vaiśēṣika-1,2.4|
• Generality (सामान्यम्) and Particularity (विशेष) are dependent on buddhi (intellect) and are relative to understanding. Existence is a general term as it is the cause for a thing from the beginning and proved by inference from the Vaiseshika sutra 1.2.4.
• नित्यं एकम् अनेकानुगतं सामान्यम् । nityaṁ ēkam anēkānugataṁ sāmānyam | (Tarka Sangraha) According to Tarka Sangraha, Samanya is nitya (eternal) and one (characteristic) which resides in many, eg., ghatatva (potness) patatva, gotva (cowness), manushyatva (humanness).
• सामान्यं नाम समानो धर्मः । अनुवृत्ति प्रत्यय हेतुः एकमनेक समवेतं सामान्यम् ॥ sāmānyaṁ nāma samānō dharmaḥ | anuvr̥tti pratyaya hētuḥ ēkamanēka samavētaṁ sāmānyam || (Sapta Padarthi) According to Sapta Padarthi, Samanya means Samana Dharma. The causative factor for producing identical knowledge and one exists in many is called Samanya.
• It is an abstract characteristic, which is eternal and possessed by many. For example, the cows belong to a class of animals which possess many common characteristic, Gotva, by which they can be distinguished from, say a lion. तद् द्विविधं परापरभेदात्। परं सत्ता। अपरं द्रव्यत्वादि॥ tad dvividhaṁ parāparabhēdāt| paraṁ sattā| aparaṁ dravyatvādi|| (Tarka Sangraha) Vaiśesika recognizes two kinds of generality (i) superior (para) which is Satta (Existence, Supreme Being) and (ii) inferior (apara) which includes all the dravyas or substances.
• Samanya indicates Jati or race according to Vaiseshika. If the features and gunas available in Dravya are identical, then it is called Samanya. It is the cognition of identical knowledge regarding the similarities in various places, various things and times.

विशेष ॥ Visesha - Particularity

• Viśesa or uniqueness is also a characteristic by which a thing can be distinguished from other things. Generality and uniqueness are conceptually opposite to each other, but both are required to identify things. Since all things exist, their existence is a general characteristic.
• नित्यद्रव्यवृत्तयो विशेषास्त्वनन्ता एव॥ nityadravyavr̥ttayō viśēṣāstvanantā ēva|| (Tarka Sangraha) It states that uniqueness or particularity which resides in eternal innumerable things is called visesha.
• नित्यद्रव्यवृत्तयो व्यावर्तका विशेषाः॥ nityadravyavr̥ttayō vyāvartakā viśēṣāḥ|| Visesha, according to Tarka Sangraha distinguishes a thing from the others (व्यावर्तका). Discrimination is the cause of inference of distinction from others. Particularity exists in the atoms or aṇus (अणु) of Prthvi, Jala, Tejas, Vayu and in the nitya dravayas like Akasha, Kala, Dik, Atma and Manas. Vaiseshika derives its name because of the invention of Visesha Padartha.
• Visesha separates one object from another. That which exists in every object with inherent relation and causes for dimunition, separation and creation of dissimilarity is called visesha. Visesha is devoid of Jati or race. It is the cause of dimunition in all the Bhava Padarthas, viz., Dravya, Guna and Karma.
• If Visesha padartha is not accepted the distinctness among the Padarthas cannot be understood and segregation is not possible.

समवायः ॥ Samavaya - Inherence

• इहेदमिति यतः कार्यकारणयोः स समवायः । वैशेषिक-७,२.२६ । ihēdamiti yataḥ kāryakāraṇayōḥ sa samavāyaḥ | vaiśēṣika-7,2.26 |
• Maharshi Kanada defined inherence as the relationship between the cause and its effects whereby the one is cognized as residing in the other. Thus when the relation is withdrawn, both the things cease to exist.
• Samāvāya or inherence is a key concept of Maharshi Kanada which etymologically means an 'intimate union' between two things which are rendered inseparable so that they cannot be separated without themselves being destroyed.
• The relation which binds a substance and its qualities, a whole and its parts, motion, and the object in motion, individual and universe, cause and effect, is that of Samāvāya or inherence. Inherence is distinguished from conjunction that the two things conjoined can be separated apart.
• Inherence is found to exist in five places:-
  • Quality is inherent in a substance
  • Movement is inherent in a substance
  • Universal or class is inherent in the individuals of substance, quality or movement
  • Particularity is inherent in eternal substances.
  • Avayavin (whole) is inherent in parts
• Like generality and uniqueness, inherence is also the product of intellect (buddhi-apeksam)

The above six categories are included under Bhava Padarthas and they are positive. Abhāva (non-existence) or negation was added later as a seventh Padartha. Maharshi Kanada mentions the concept but does not define it as a separate category.

अभावः ॥ Abhava - Negation

The Vaisesika believes that an object exists independently and knowledge about the object is not the object itself, it is different from the object known. Similarly, knowledge of negation points to an object which is negated, and is different from that object. For example, non-existence of a jar before its creation or after its destruction is reality and that reality is abhava. Like other realities, the negative reality abhava is also produces knowledge. According to Navya Nyaya siddhanta, Abhava is classified as Abhava Padartha and is of 4 kinds.

1. Pragabhava - Prior Non-existence, i.e., absence before something comes into existence
2. Pradhvamsa Abhava - Subsequent Non-existence, i.e., absence after something is gone
3. Atyanta Abhava - Eternal non-existence, i.e., something that never exists
4. Anyonya Abhava - Mutual non-existence. Absence depending on another.

Thus, Vaiseshika sutras have great relevance in modern physics and chemistry.

षड्पदार्थाः ॥ Six Categories as per Ayurveda

Padartha refers to the fundamental categories or entities of words that convey meaning. Padartha holds a central role in Ayurveda, being considered the cause for various activities, especially in dhatusamya (maintaining the equilibrium of bodily components) and preserving health. As mentioned in Charak Samhita, Padartha serves as the foundation on which the entire rationale of Ayurvedic treatment is built and executed. Amongst the various schools of Indian Philosophies, the Vaiseshika Darshana enjoys a place of pride as it has contributed a lot to the formation and enrichment of the Ayurveda code of health maintenance and eradication of disease.

The six categories of Vaisheshika (excluding Abhava) termed as six causative factors in Ayurveda form the base of Ayurvedic diagnosis and treatment. The diet and medicine are categorized under the Dravya (Substance) which is the abode of the Guna (Quality/Attribute) and Karma (Action). The selection of the substances in the form of diet and medicine depends on the quality they possess. This is indeed the base of its action. The potency of a drug depends on the quality it possesses. The other three categories of the Samanya (Similitude/Generality), Vishesha (Distinctiveness/Peculiarity) and Samavaya (Inherence) helps in the choice of diet and medicine. The Samanya (Similitude/Generality) and Vishesha (Distinctiveness/Peculiarity) are the cause of increase and decrease of entities respectively. The judicious combination of the Samanya and Vishesha maintain the homogeneity of the body. Similarly in the treatment also, the depleted entities are nourished by the intake of the substances that increase the depleted while the increased entities are controlled by the use of Vishesha. The use of oil in the management of Vata is based on the concept of Vishesha as the oil is unctuous which pacifies the dry Vata. The gain in the weight of body is due to the Kapha while the loss of weight symbolizes the increase in Vata. In the case of dehydration, the lost water is replenished by the intravenous fluids which are an excellent example of the Samanya. Shad Padarthas are useful to maintain svasthya or healthy state and to cure diseases. They are the causative factors for Dhatu Vaishamya as well as saamya.

Ayurveda Padarthas (Six ontological categories of an object)

Padartha	Contemporary term	Defined as
Samanya	Generality	refers to the universal essence or class essence. By applying the principle of similarity, one can recognize shared characteristics among various substances, qualities, and actions.
Vishesha	Particularity	the specific or unique attributes that distinguish one substance from another.
Dravya	Matter /Substance	refers to physical substances Akasa, Vayu, Agni, Jala and Prithvi
Guna	Property, Quality or trait	Attribute, property or quality of a substance; it forms an inseparable entity with substance (dravya); quality is devoid of any action on its own, although it is responsible for action through dravya.
Karma	Action	the activity or motion of substances, represented by sanyog and vibhag
Samavaya	Inherence	the inseparable connection between Dravya and their guna and karma

The six Padarthas are further categorized into two groups, as explained by Chakrapani in his commentary as

• Bhati Siddha: This category encompasses Samanya (universal), Vishesha (particular), and Samavaya (inherence). These Padartha possess an inferential or indirect existence and cannot be physically demonstrated. They are also known as 'ashrayeePadartha,' as they depend on other factors for their existence.
• Satta Siddha: This category includes Dravya (substance), Guna (quality), and Karma (action). These Padartha possess a direct existence and can be proved or demonstrated. They are also known as 'ashraya Padartha,' as they form the foundation or basis for other aspects.

Importance of Padartha Vijnana in Ayurveda

The panchamahabhuta, medicinal plants (aushadhi dravya), components of ayu namely shareera (body), indriya (senseorgans), sattva (mind), atma (soul), their properties, actions are all one or another form of padartha. Hence are immensely important in the prevention and treatment of diseases, according to Ayurveda. [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 1/26]

Padarthas are the causes (karana) for the occurrence of all the types of activities, especially equilibrium of components (dhatusamya) or the maintenance of health. [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 1/53] These padarthas are the basis on which the rationale of treatment of Ayurveda is executed and planned. Hence these are rightfully quoted as the cause of all the happenings in the universe. According to Ayurveda, it is the basis of cause-effect relationship (karya-karana bhava). [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 1/137]

The basis of the Ayurveda classification of Padartha is for the sole purpose of “Dhatusamyata” In Ayurveda, the emergence of diseases is attributed to the imbalance, either an excess or a deficiency, of Doshas. Reinstating the equilibrium of these Doshas is the crux of healing, referred to as Chikitsa. The foundation of Chikitsa rests upon the principles of Samanya (universal) and Vishesha (particular). Achieving a state of health involves harmonizing the Doshas and Dhatus.

Ayurveda's Classification of Padarthas

द्विविधमेव खलु सर्वं सत् आसत् च ॥ dvividhamēva khalu sarvaṁ sat āsat ca || (Char. Sutr. 1)

Acharya Charaka states that there are two padarthas in the universe - Sat and Asat. They are also known as Bhava Padarthas (existent) and Abhava Padarthas (non-existent). Even though Acharya Charaka states so, he accepted Bhava padarthas only. The padartha which has existence is called Bhava Padartha and it includes all the six padarthas described by Maharshi Kanada except Abhava. Chakrapani states Abhava as Asat Padartha, and does not accept it as Padartha because it cannot produce any Karya. Manifestation of the diseases and treatment of illness can be carried out with Bhava Padartha only.

In an other context, Ayurvedist's state that the Padarthas of four types.

1. Satmya (Hita or wholesome)
2. Asaatmya (Ahita or unwholesome)
3. Sajatiya (nutrients)
4. Vijateeya (emaciants)

But these are not considered as Padarthas as mentioned in the Darshanas.

Difference in meaning of the Padarthas in Vaiseshika and Ayurveda

Padartha	Contemporary term	Darshanik Meaning	Ayurvedic Meaning
Samanya	Generality	Samanya indicates Jati or race. Gotva or cowness in all cows is identical, it is nitya and indestructible.	Samanya indicates the increase in Dosha, Dhatu, Mala and its utility in the maintenance of normal health. Samanya is of three types - Dravya, Guna and Karma Samanya.
Vishesha	Particularity	Particularity resides in the atoms of Prthvi, Jala, Teja and Vayu, Akasha, Kala, Dik, Atma, Manas.	Atulya visesha is one that distinguishes a thing from the other. Visesha is the cause for diminution or decrease. The objects which do not act similarly are distinguished from each other.
Dravya	Matter /Substance	Karana Dravya alone are dravyas	Karya and Karana Dravyas are both dravyas. Bhavamishra states, - that which is aashraya to Rasa, Guna, Virya, Vipaaka and Prabhava is called Dravya.
Guna	Property, Quality or trait	Gunas are characteristic of the dravya/substance in a peripheral view.	Gunas are described based on their efficiency or influence on the human body. Sushruta states that gunas of various dravyas are inferred through their actions after consuming them, i.e., Dravyas - hence an internal view.
Karma	Action	Action is of the nature of motion or movement. Five types of action - Utkshepana, Apakshepana, Akunchana, Prasarana, and Gamana.	Karma here is three-fold: 1. Causative factor for samyoga-vibhaga action or movement 2. Karma related to pravrtti 3. Karma related to treatment
Samavaya	Inherence	Samavaya is the inseparable relation between dravyas and their attributes.	Ayurveda accepts the same view as Vaiseshika. The concomitance between the part and whole, guna and karma with dravya is eternal and cannot be separated under any circumstance.

Padarthas in Ayurveda

Dravyas: Dravya is that in which both Guna and Karma exist with invariable concomitance and is the ultimate cause for Karya according to Acharya Charaka.

यत्राश्रिताः कर्मगुणाः कारणं समवायि यत् । तद्रव्यं – yatrāśritāḥ karmaguṇāḥ kāraṇaṁ samavāyi yat | tadravyaṁ – Char. Samh. 1

Acharya Sushruta strengthens this view stating -

द्रव्य लक्षणं तु क्रिया गुणवत् समवायी कारणम् ॥ dravya lakṣaṇaṁ tu kriyā guṇavat samavāyī kāraṇam ||

According to Ayurveda, all dravyas in the universe and the body is Panchabhoutika, i.e., originates or made up of the Panchabhutas. The Doshas, Malas etc., and the organs are all Paanchabhoutika. All dravyas have a specific composition of panchamahabhuta with an appropriate combination and separation (samyoga and vibhaga). There is a dominance of a particular mahabhuta. This defines them as akashiya (akasha dominant), vayavya (vayu dominant), agneya (agni dominant), apya (apa dominant) and parthiva (prithvi dominant).

Dravyas are divided into two viz., Ahara and Aushadha Dravyas. They both have six tastes, viz, madhura, amla, lavana, katu, tikta and kashaya. Dravyas have gunas also; accompanied with the gunas Dravyas act on the body accordingly.

Gunas: Charaka states

समवायीतु निश्चेष्टः कारणं गुणः । samavāyītu niścēṣṭaḥ kāraṇaṁ guṇaḥ | (Char. Samh. 1/51)

Guna is based on Dravya and depends on it. Dravya and Guna have the Adhara-Adheya, ashraya-ashrayee relationship. Since Guna reveals the significance of Dravya, it is called Viseshana. Guna depends on dravya, and reveals its speciality, thus it is Gaouna or secondary.

A total of 41 gunas are explained in Ayurveda. They are classified under the following headings [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 1/49]

• Physical properties (sharira guna): These are 20 in number. They are termed as Śārīrika Guṇas or Gurvādi Guṇas (Biological Qualities) and they form the main group of qualities in the action of drugs. All these are useful in the treatment as well as for protection of health.

S. No	Quality	Biological Action
1.	Guru (Heavy)	Bṛṃhaṇa (Nourishing)
2.	Laghu (Light)	Laṅghana (Reducing)
3.	Manda (Dull)	Śamana (Pacifying)
4.	Tīkṣṇa (Sharp)	Śodhana (Purifying)
5.	Śīta​ (Cold)	Stambhana (Coagulating)
6.	Uṣṇa (Hot)	Svedana (Sweat causing)
7.	Snigdha (Unctuous)	Kledana (Soaking)
8.	Rūksa (Dry)	Śoṣaṇa (Dehydrating)
9.	Ślakṣṇa (Smooth)	Ropana (Healing)
10.	Khara (Rough)	Lekhana (Scarifying)
11.	Sāndra (Viscid)	Prasādana (Supplementing)
12.	Drava (Liquid)	Viloḍana (Stirring)
13.	Mṛdu (Soft)	Ślathana (Loosening)
14.	Kaṭhina​ (Hard)	Dṛḍhī-karaṇa (Hardening)
15.	Sthira (Stable)	Dhāraṇa (Stabilizing)
16.	Sara (Flowing)	Preraṇa (Mobilizing)
17.	Sūkṣma (Subtle)	VIvaraṇa (Penetrating)
18.	Sthūla (Gross)	Saṃvaraṇa (Obstructing)
19.	Viśada (Clear)	Ślathana (Clarifying)
20.	Picchila (Sticky)	Lepana (Smearing)

• General properties (samanya gunas): These are 10 in number. They are also called Parādi-Guṇa​s (Para-pharmacological qualities). They modify the action of Gurvādi Guṇas.

S.No	Quality	Description
1.	Paratva (Priority)	Conducive to success of treatment compared to another drug/patient in terms of Deśa (geographical area), Kāla (season), Pāka (processing), Vīrya (Potency), Māna (quantity), Vayas (period), Rasa (taste), etc.
2.	Aparatva (Posteriority)	inferior for treatment compared to another drug/patient in above parameters.
3.	Yukti (Application)	proper and planned application of drug; processing, combination of drugs
4.	Saṅkhyā (Number)	all aspects involving number such as dose, frequency, quantity, etc.
5.	Saṃyoga (Conjunction)	combination of medicines may modify their action compared to individual
6.	Vibhāga (Disjunction/Division)	medicines in divided dose or divided ingredients can alter its action
7.	Pṛthakatva​ (Distinctiveness)	medicines sometimes need separate administration for optimum results
8.	Parimāṇa (Measurement)	dose of medicine, quantity of different materials like enema liquid, size of surgical incision, etc.
9.	Saṃskāra (Pharmaceutical modification)	modifying qualities of a drug through various processes
10.	Abhyāsa (Practice)	inducing a habit through continuous use of a food/drug - this can alter the action of medicine in the body. E.g. drug resistance by continuous intake of a particular medicine

• Spiritual properties (atma gunas): These are 06 in number. They are qualities specific to Atman only.

S.No	Quality	Description
1.	Buddhi (Cognitive knowledge)	Any feature is validated when recognized by the Ātman through the Mind. Though cognition (e.g. this is a bird) happens with the help of the mind, it is completed only when Ātman recognizes it. Hence cognition is ultimately attributed to Ātman.
2.	Sukha (Pleasure)	A feeling of agreeability and happiness when a desire is achieved. The association of the sense organs with the desired object, internally recognized by the mind and ultimately by Atman, qualified by Dharma, brings about a happy state.
3.	Dukha (Pain)	Universally recognized by all, Dukha is the opposite of Sukha, a feeling of disagreeability and unhappiness characterized by the association of sense organs with an undesirable object, qualified by Adharma.
4.	Icchā (Desire)	Synonym of Kama, it is the intense longing for a particular object, leads to Sukha when achieved and Dukha when not achieved. It is eight fold - Kama, Abhilasha, Raga, Sankalpa, Karunya, Vairagyam, Upadha, Bhavam.
5.	Dveṣa (Aversion)	It is typically a particular displeasure towards an object, characterized by negative feeling most notably a burning sensation, and happens subsequent to pain.
6.	Prayatna (Effort)	It involves the initiation of action.

• Properties of objects of senses (indriyartha/vishishta guna): These are 05 in number. They are the innate qualities of the Panchabhutas.
  • Śabda (Sound)
  • Sparśa (Touch)
  • Rūpa (Colour)
  • Rasa (Taste)
  • Gandha (Smell)

Features of gunas can be summarized as

1. Guna depends on dravya
2. It does not contain other gunas and karma
3. By itself it is not in a form of action
4. It produces other similar gunas
5. It is not related to Samyoga (conjunction) and Vibhaga (disjunction)
6. A padartha which possesses the gunatva jati is called Guna

Action: Karma (action) resides in the substratum dravya, with samavaya relationship. [Cha.Sa.Sutra Sthana 1/52] It is devoid of gunas and is the independent cause for conjunction and disjunction at a time. It does not require any other factor.

Karma is broadly classified in two types:

1. Adhyatmika or Paralaukika karma denoting those deeds having metaphysical or invisible effect. They include dharmik activities such as yajna, homa, bali, dana etc.
2. Laukika karma denoting the deeds having a physical or visible effect. Ut-kṣepaṇa (Upward movement), Ava-kṣepaṇa (Downward movement), Ākuñcana (Contraction or flexion), Prasāraṇa (Expansion or extension), Gamana (Other movements like bhramana, rechana etc)

Karma in Ayurveda is three fold.

1. Causative factor for samyoga-vibhaga action or movement: Here karma is further of two types- Effort which is cause of action (eg: When Atman combines with Raja and Tamas the process of evolution begins) and Action as the cause for conjunction and disjunction (conjunction of Atman, Manas, Indriya and Object is required for the process of cognition to take place else it does not occur)
2. Karma related to Pravrtti: Beginning of treatment is Pravrtti. The four limbs of treatment include the assemblage of Vaidya, Dravya, Upasthata, and Rogi which gives rise to Pravrtti.
3. Karma related to treatment: Treatment is otherwise called Karma or Kriya. Based on this the living body is called Karma Purusha, as he is the seat of all actions.

सामान्यम् ॥ Samanya: The padartha which causes growth or increase of every thing at all times in bhavapadarthas such as Dravya, Guna and Karma is called Samanya. It brings about oneness or ekatva. Samanya is tulyarthatha or equivalence.

सर्वदा सर्व भवानां सामान्यं वृद्धि कारणम् ॥ सामान्यं एकत्वकरम् । तुलयार्थताहि सामान्यम् ॥ sarvadā sarva bhavānāṁ sāmānyaṁ vr̥ddhi kāraṇam || sāmānyaṁ ēkatvakaram | tulayārthatāhi sāmānyam || (Char. Sutr. Sthan. 1.44-45)

Samanya is three-fold.

1. Dravya samanyata - If both substances are identical (similar) in nature is causes for the increase (sajatiya dravya). Mamsa dhatu of an individual is identical to that of animal meat. Hence the intake of meat increases Mamsa dhatu. Generic concomitance causes for growth in the Bhavapadarthas like Dravya, Guna and Karma always.
2. Guna samanyata - Because of oneness in nature Samanya causes increase. Even though the dravyas are not identical, due to oneness of the their attributes, Doshas, Dhatus and Malas increase.
3. Karma samanyata - If the increase is due to any action it is called karma samanya. Sitting for long hours increases Sthira guna or Kapha, hence kapha in the body increases. Swimming and jumping increases Chala guna or Vata, as a result bodily vata increases.

विशेष ॥ Visesha: Samanya and visesha are fundamental principles in Ayurveda. Manifestation, alleviation of the diseases and for maintenance of health, the distinctness of dravya, guna and karma are all based on visesha padartha only. Viseshatva means atulyartharva (unequivalence) in Ayurveda. Ex - Body becomes plump because of Mamsa and thin because of Vata. So mamsa is distinct from Vata.

ह्रास हेतुर्विशेषश्च। विशेषस्तु पृथक्त्वकृत्। विशेषस्तु विपर्ययः॥ hrāsa hēturviśēṣaśca| viśēṣastu pr̥thaktvakr̥t| viśēṣastu viparyayaḥ|| (Char. Sutr. Stana. 1.44-45)

Features of Visesha

• Visesha causes dimunition.
• It distinguishes one from the other (thus contrary to Samanya)
• Exists in every object in inherent manner (samavayi relation)
• It is devoid of race
• Cause for dimunition in all the bhavapadarthas - dravya, guna and karma.

Like samanya, visesha is also three-fold. Dravya, guna and karma visesha.

समवायः ॥ Samavaya: According to Tarkasangraha, inseparable concomitance or samavaya is an eternal relationship. The relation between a part and the whole (Avayava and Avayavi), quantity and qualified (guna and guni), motion and the moving object (kriya and kriyavanta), race/jati and individual (jati and vyakti) is called samavaya sambandha.