Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)

Nyaya Darshana (Samskrit : न्यायदर्शनम्) is one of the most important darshana shastras from ancient times. The word Nyaya signifies going into a subject, i.e., investigating it analytically. In this sense of analysis, the word Nyaya is exactly opposed to Sankhya, synthesis. The Nyaya is sometimes called Tarka-Vidya or the Science of Debate, Vada-Vidya or the Science of Discussion. Tarka is the special feature of the Nyaya. Nyaya is not merely formal logic, but a complete epistemology (a theory of knowledge).

Talk on Introduction to Nyaya Logic Epistemology

परिचयः || Introduction

To understand the vaidika dharma, knowledge of Nyaya is extremely important. Manu, the first law giver, explains that the principles of Dharma can be understood by systematic reasoning of Shrutis (श्रुत्यनुगामी तर्क). Nyaya throws light on all subjects, explains all karmas and thus is the foundation for all dharmas. Due to the wide ranging applicability of its principles, Nyaya is universally popular.

Founder - Maharshi Gautama

Maharshi Gotama (गोतमः), also known as Gautama and Akshapada, was the founder of the Nyaya system of philosophy. Nyaya Sutra (न्यायसूत्राणि) by Gautama is the first work on Nyaya Darsana and is composed of five adhyayas and each adhyaya is divided into two Ahnikas (आह्निकः). It contains references to the Samkhya, Yoga, Vaiseshika, Mimamsa, Vedanta and Buddhist systems of philosophy. It is clear from the early commentaries on the Nyaya-sutras that the author of the sutras was distinctly named as Akshapada. Both the Bhashyakara, Vatsyayana and Vartikakara, Udyotakara, affirm that Akshapada gave the Nyaya philosophy in a systematic way. Padmapurana, Skanda purana etc., mention that Nyaya shastra was expounded by Gotama or Gautama.

Etymology

The word 'nyaya' popularly signifies 'right' or 'justice.' Nyaya shastra is the science of right judgment or true reasoning. Nyaya is predominantly intellectual, analytic, logical and epistemological in nature. It is also called Tarkashastra or the science of reasoning; Pramana-shashtra or the science of logic and epistemology.

न्यायशास्त्रवाङ्मयम् ॥ Nyaya Literature

Nyayasutra (न्यायसूत्रम्) by Maharshi Akshapada Gautama is the primary text of the Nyaya Darshana. As many as 12 bhashyas (commentaries) have been written on these sutras by various scholars of Nyaya shastra. The bhashyas and the bhashyakaras of the Nyayasutra are enumerated below.

Bhashya (भाष्यम् । Commentary)	Bhashyakara (भाष्यकारः । Commentator)
Nyaya Bhashya (न्यायभाष्यम्)	Vatsyayana (वात्स्यायनः)
Nyaya Vartika (न्यायवार्तिकः)	Udyotakara (उद्योतकरः)
Nyaya Vartika Tatparya Tika (न्यायवार्तिकतात्पर्यटीका)	Vachaspati Mishra (वाचस्पतिमिश्रः)
Nyaya Vartika Tatparya Tika Parishuddhi (न्यायवार्तिकतात्पर्यटीकापरिशुद्धिः)	Udayanacharya (उदयनाचार्यः)
Nyaya Nibandha Prakasha (न्यायनिबन्धप्रकाशः)	Vardhamana (वर्धमानः)
Nyayalankara (न्यायालङ्कारः)	Shrikantha (श्रीकण्ठः)
Nyaya Vrtti (न्यायवृत्तिः)	Abhayatilaka Upadhyaya (अभयतिलकः उपाध्यायः)
Nyaya Sutroddhara (न्यायसूत्रोद्धारः)	Vachaspati Mishra (वाचस्पतिमिश्रः)
Nyaya Rahasya (न्यायरहस्यम्)	Ramabhadra (रामभद्रः)
Nyaya Siddhanta Mala (न्यायसिद्धान्तमाला)	Jayrama (जयरामः)
Nyaya Sutra Vrtti (न्यायसूत्रवृत्तिः)	Vishvanatha Siddhantapanchanana (विश्वनाथसिद्धान्तपञ्चाननः)
Nyaya Samkshepa (न्यायसंक्षेपः)	Govinda Sanna (गोविन्दसन्ना)

Other commentaries include

• Nyaya Manjari (न्यायमञ्जरी) by Jayanta (जयन्तः)
• Nyaya Bodhini (न्यायबोधिनी) by Govardhana (गोवर्धनः)

Nyaya Siddhantam - Core Concepts

The dialogues and discourses which were the characteristic features of the Upanisadic period naturally resulted, in course of time, in the formulation of definite methods of debating and forms of reasoning; and these gave rise to a science, which was originally called Anvikshiki, the science of inquiry , then Tarkavidya, the science of debating; or Hetu-vidya, the science of reasoning; and ultimately, Nyaya-shastra, the science of logic. Thus Nyaya is chiefly concerned with the means to attain true knowledge of reality (metaphysics) and theories of knowledge.

Nyaya-sutras mainly treat five subjects

1. pramanas, the means of right knowledge
2. prameya, the object of right knowledge
3. vaada, a debate or discussion
4. avayava, there are five members of syllogism (a process of logic in which two general statements lead to a more particular statement)
5. anyamatapareeksha, an examination of contemporary philosophical doctrines. In Nyaya sutras (3.2 and 4.1) there is a critical discussion of Samkhya doctrines of intellect, the Saugata doctrine of momentariness (kshanika-vada), Sunyavada of Buddhism and Brahmaparinama-vada of Vedanta.

Salient Features of Nyaya Siddhanta

The distinguishing feature of Nyaya is its belief in the utility of analysis and in the reliability of reason, and systematically defending its standpoint against rival views. Some salient siddhantas of Nyaya include

• Realism - Belief in the independent (even from our perceptions and knowledge) existence of the external world, i.e., the world is real. Hence Nyaya is described as realistic.
• Logic - Independent existence of the world can be defended not by faith or intuition but by logical arguments and critical reflection on the nature of our experience.
• Pluralism - Nyaya maintains that the nature of Ultimate Reality is many and thus is described as pluralistic in view.
• Atomistic Pluralism - Paramaanu-s (Atoms) are the constituents of matter and they make up many entities, both spiritual and material which constitute the Jagat (Universe), thus Nyaya is said to be Atomistic Pluralism.
• Matter, time and space are all recognized as independent entities.
• Prameya (Object of Knowledge) - As an upholder of realism, Nyaya philosophy expresses that knowledge always deals with an object. There are twelve objects of knowledge enumerated in Nyaya. It corresponds to Atmavaada of the Anvikshiki. Though Prameya is mentioned in Charaka Samhita, it does not refer specifically to the twelve objects enumerated in Nyaya, however Ramayana, Mahabharata and Manu Samhita use this term in the sense of an object of knowledge.
• Pramana (Means of Knowledge) - There are four means of knowledge namely, direct knowledge (pratyaksha, in the sense of sense-cognition), inference (anumana), knowledge by similarity (upamana) and verbal testimony (shabda). Of these, shabda combines in itself the meanings of aptopadesa (reliable assertion), shabda (word), and aitihya (tradition) as explained in the Charaka Samhita. Aupamya or Upamana accepted is accepted as a pramana and included in Tantrayukti.
• Causation Theory is Asatkaryavada - Nyāya theory of causation is known as ‘asatkaryavada’ or ‘ārmbhavāda’. They viewed that effect is a new product produced/created by a cause but the effect and the cause are not one and the same. The effect is a new product and is not present earlier in the cause (i.e., cause is not transformed to effect). Again, both cause and effect are real.
• Ishvara is the Efficient cause - Ishvara is the nimitta karana or efficient cause (instrumental cause) of the creation, He is the creator, sustainer and destroyer of the Universe. He has the real knowledge of all objects and events in the Universe. Shruti bears testimony to His existence.
• Material cause of Universe - It is the eternal atoms of the four bhutas (earth, water, fire and air). Their conjugation is the known material cause of the world.
• Self has no Consciousness (Jada) - The self in its original state has no consciousness and hence devoid of cognition and knowledge. But when it comes into contact with sense organs it acquires consciousness.
• Consciousness of Subject (Jiva) - According to Nyāya, the self can neither be identified with mind (mānas) nor can be identified with pure consciousness (Brahman of Advaita), but understood as consciousness belonging to an individual/subject (Jivatma).
• Karma Cycle - As long as self is attached to the body and senses, it goes through the cycles of birth and death.
• Moksha - It is the state of refrain from all kinds of sufferings and bondage which arise because of the self’s association with body and sense organs. Knowledge of the sixteen categories or padarthas is the cause of Moksha, depends on the grace of Ishvara.

Brief discussion about certain concepts

1. Jnana (Knowledge) and Pramanas

Interpreting the term ‘knowledge’ Nyāyikas say that it may be treated as cognition, apprehension, consciousness. All knowledge is manifestation of objects. Knowledge reveals both subject and object, yet both are quite distinct from knowledge. Just as a lamp manifests physical things placed before it, knowledge reveals all objects placed before it. Knowledge is valid or invalid.

- Valid knowledge is defined as the right apprehension of an object. In order to be valid, Knowledge must correspond to its object or reality. Valid knowledge is produced by four means of knowledge, Pramanas, namely, प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ।। ३ ।। (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3)

1. Pratyaksha (perception by the senses)
2. Anumana (inference)
3. Upamana (comparison)
4. Shabda (word or verbal testimony). It includes Vedic revelation.

- Invalid knowledge is defined as the wrong apprehension of an object. It includes smrti (memory), samshaya (doubt), viparyaya (error), and tarka (hypothetical reasoning). Memory is not cognition at the present moment, it is a represented one. Doubt is uncertainty in cognition. Error is false cognition not corresponding to the real object. Hypothetical reasoning is unreal knowledge.

Knowledge implies four conditions:

1. The subject or the Pramata (प्रमाता), the cognizer
2. The object or the Prameya (प्रमेय)
3. The resulting state of cognition or Pramiti (प्रमिति)
4. The means of knowledge or the Pramana (प्रमाणम्)

The Prameya, or the objects of which right knowledge is to be obtained, are twelve in number, viz.,

आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम् ।। ९ ।। {प्रमेयौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.9)

• Self - Atman (आत्मन्)
• Body - Sharira (शरीरम्)
• Senses - Indriyas (इन्द्रियाणि)
• Objects of senses (Artha)
• Intellect - Buddhi (बुद्धिः)
• Mind - Manas (मनः)
• Activity (Pravritti)
• Defects - Doshas (दोषाः)
• Rebirth (Pretyabhava)
• Fruits of action (Phala)
• Suffering (Dukha)
• Freedom from suffering (Apavarga)

2. Isvara Nyaya Darsana seeks to establish the existence of Ishvara on the basis of Anumana (inference). It says that the actions of man produce their fruits, called Adrishta, under the control of Ishvara. He is the ultimate cause of the creation, maintenance and destruction of the world. He supervises the work of Adrishta. He does not alter the course of Adrishta but renders its operation possible. He is the bestower of the fruits of actions of human beings. He is endowed with omnipotence and omniscience, by which He guides and regulates world. Ishvara is a Personal Being.

ईश्वरः कारणं पुरुषकर्माफल्यदर्शनात् १९ (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.19) न पुरुषकर्माभावे फलानिष्पत्तेः २० (Nyaya. Sutr. 4.1.20)

He is free from Mithya-Jnana (false knowledge), Adharma (demerit), and Pramada (carelessness). He has Jnana (knowledge), Ichcha (desire) and Prayatna (volitional effort). Ishvara is One, a Creator, who is endowed with Nitya Jnana (eternal knowledge) and Ichha-Kriya (desire-action) as His Gunas (attributes). He is Vibhu (all-pervading). Creation involves the ordering of the eternal entities, which co-exist with Ishvara, into a moral world, in which individual selves enjoy and suffer according to the merit or demerit of their actions. All physical objects serve as means to the moral and spiritual ends of human life. The Nyaya system admits that without the grace of Ishvara it is impossible for any Jiva to attain true knowledge or to reach the state of Moksha.

3. Atman

Atman is the first object of right knowledge in Gautama's list of Prameyas. It is a real eternal entity according to Nyaya. Desire (इच्छा), aversion (द्वेषः), volition (प्रयत्नः), pleasure (सुखम्), pain (दुःखः), cognition (ज्ञानम्) are its qualities. Desire etc., are proof for the existence of Atman.

इच्छाद्वेषप्रयत्नसुखदुःखज्ञानानि आत्मनो लिङ्गम् इति॥ {आत्मलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.10) तत्रात्मा सर्वस्य द्रष्टा सर्वस्य भोक्ता सर्वज्ञः सर्वानुभावी। तस्य भोगायतनं शरीरम्। भोगसाधनानीन्द्रियाणि। (Bhashya for Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.10)

The object of the notion of "I" is the Atman. No cognition or recollection is possible without it. The eye cannot see objects and the ear cannot hear sounds without Atman. There should be an agent to use the instruments (senses) and that agent is the Atman. After an object is seen, even if both the eyes are destroyed, the knowledge that Atman has seen remains. This knowledge is not a quality of either the objects or the senses. Mind is different from Atman. Mind is only an instrument of the Atman, by means of which it thinks. The self is the subject. Atman exists even when the body perishes, and the senses are cut off when the mind is controlled. There are infinite numbers of Atmas. Atman is the knower, the enjoyer and is an agent of action. Emotions and will are its qualities. It is a whole, cannot be destroyed, timeless, all-pervading and eternal. Atman is not transcendental consciousness and is different from Ishvara who is supreme. Each Atman has its manas during its empirical life and is separated from it at liberation.

4. Sharira

The body is the second object of right knowledge in Gautama’s list of Prameyas. It is the site of gestures, senses and emotions.

चेष्टेन्द्रियार्थाश्रयः शरीरम् ।। ११ ।। {शरीरलक्षणम्}(Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.10)

Sharira is the chief means of experience for the Atman, pleasure and pain are enjoyed by the Atman only through this receptacle. Thus, body can be defined as the substratum of action - भोगायतनं शरीरम् (Tarkabhasa by Keshava Mishra). Body strives to reach what is desirable and to avoid what is undesirable. भोगसाधनानीन्द्रियाणि। - The instruments which lead to the experience (of pleasure or pain) are the Indriyas, and the body is the locus of Indriyas.

5. The Universe

The universe is a composite of eternal, unalterable, causeless atoms, and it exists independently of our thoughts. The universe is the modification of the atoms (Paramanus) of the physical elements: Earth (Prithvi), Water (Apas), Fire (Tejas) and Air (Vayu). The Nyaya Darsana admits nine objects (Dravyas), viz., Earth, Water, Fire, Air, Ether, Time, Space (Quarters), Mind and the Self (Atman). The view of causation is Asatkaryavada because the different combinations of atoms are regarded as new creations, as real fresh beginnings, having distinctive features of their own and adding new properties to reality.

6. Cause of Bondage and the Means to Emancipation

Misapprehension (Mithya-Jnana) is the cause of bondage of the world. It constitutes in thinking as my own self that which is not my self. Faults (Dosha), activity (Pravritti), birth (Janma) and pain (Duhkha) constitute the world. Release

बाधनालक्षणं दुःखम् ।। २१ ।। {दुःखलक्षणम्} तदत्यन्तविमोक्षः अपवर्गः ।। २२ ।। {अपवर्गलक्षणम्}(Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.21,22)

False notion or false knowledge is at the root of all misery and pain. From Mithya-Jnana or false notion comes the fault of like and dislike (Raga-Dvesha); from Raga-Devesha proceeds Karma or action—virtuous or vicious—which forces a man to pass through repeated births for the sake of its reward or punishment. From these births proceed misery and pain. It is the aim of philosophy to eradicate the false notion or Mithya-Jnana which is at the root of all miseries and pains. On the successive annihilation of misapprehension, faults, activity, birth and pain, there follows release (Apavarga). True knowledge constitutes the knowledge of

- padarthas

- the four pramanas

- twelve prameyas

The state of mukti, according to Nyaya-Vaiseshika is neither a state of pure knowledge nor of Ananda (as in Advaita) but the self remains in its original, unassociated state with pleasure, pain, knowledge, and will etc.

7. Padarthas or The Sixteen Categories

One can remove misapprehension or false knowledge and attain supreme felicity by the true knowledge of the sixteen categories.

प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानाम् तत्त्वज्ञानात् निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ।। १ ।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरा पायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्}(Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.1-2)

The sixteen categories are:

• Means of Right Knowledge (pramana)
• Objects of Right Knowledge (prameya)
• Doubt (samsaya)
• Purpose (prayojana)
• Example (drstanta)
• Tenet (siddhanta)
• Members of Syllogism (avayava)
• Confutation (tarka)
• Ascertainment (nirnaya)
• Discussion (vada)
• Wrangling (jalpa)
• Cavil (vitanda)
• Fallacy (hetvabhasa)
• Quibble (Chala)
• Analogue (jati)
• A point of defeat (nigrahasthana)

There is, first, the state of Samsaya or doubt about the point to be discussed. Next comes the Prayojana or motive for discussing it. Next follows a Drishtanta or example, which leads to the Siddhanta or established conclusion. Then comes the objector with his Avayava or argument, split up into five members. Next follows the Tarka or refutation, and the Nirnaya or ascertainment of the true state of the case. A further Vada or controversy takes place, which leads to Jalpa or mere wrangling. This is followed by Vitanda or cavilling, Hetvabhasa or fallacious reasoning, and Nigraha-sthana, the putting an end to all discussions by a demonstration of the objector's incapacity for argument.

When one attains the true knowledge, his faults viz. affection (Raga), aversion (Dvesha) and stupidity (Moha) vanish. Aversion includes anger, envy, malice and hatred. Attachment includes lust, greed, avidity and covetousness. Stupidity includes suspicion, conceit, carelessness and misapprehension. Stupidity generates dislike and attachment. One must put an end to the chain which begins with misapprehension or false knowledge and ends with pain. If false knowledge vanishes, faults disappear. If faults vanish, one is freed from activity, consequent transmigration and pains.   

8. The State of Apavarga or Release

Apavarga, or release, is absolute deliverance from pain. It is freedom from pain. It is cessation of pain. It is not the enjoyment of positive pleasure. It is not annihilation of the self. It is destruction of bondage.

तदत्यन्तविमोक्षः अपवर्गः ।। २२ ।। {अपवर्गलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.22)

Release from the twenty-one kinds of pain or Duhkha is liberation (Moksha). In the state of release, there is no connection of mind with the Atman. The Atman is destitute of desire, effort, merit, demerit, hatred, mental impressions, etc., in the state of liberation, as, then, there is no mind. The liberation (Moksha) of the Naiyayikas is a state of painless, and passionless existence.

Comparison Between Nyaya and Other Darshanas

वैशेषिकः || Vaiseshika Darsana

Similarities - Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are analytic types of philosophy. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika explore the significance of time, space, cause, matter, mind, soul and knowledge for experience, and give the results in the form of a theory of the universe. The Nyaya and the Vaiseshika are regarded as parts of one whole. The Vaiseshika is a supplement to the Nyaya. They are allied systems. They both believe in Ishvara, plurality of Atman and an atomic universe. Further, they use many arguments in common, such as the padarthas. The Nyaya and Vaisesika recognize the reality of the world based on time and space and is composed of heterogeneous atoms, governed by the law of casualty and subservient to the law of karma.

Differences - Nyaya recognizes four Pramanas or means of knowledge: Pratyaksha (perception), Upamana (comparison), Anumana (inference), and Shabda (verbal testimony). However, the Vaiseshika only recognizes two Pramanas: Pratyaksha (perception) and Anumana (inference), and it limits comparison and verbal testimony to perception and inference.

Nyaya school identifies sixteen padarthas or categories which comprise all the topics of the science of debate whereas Vaiseshika darshana proposed a list of six padarthas ‘categories’ of objects: substance (dravya), quality (guṇa), motion or action (karma), universal (sāmānya), particularity or differentiator (viśeṣa), inherence (samavāya). The seventh one is non-existence (abhāva) as per Navya-nyaya scholars.

साङ्ख्यः || Samkhya, योगः || Yoga Darshana and वेदान्त || Vedanta Systems

Nyaya system emphasizes on the logical and systematic approach to understanding the world and acquiring true knowledge (of the four pramanas, twelve prameyas and six arthas).

Samkhya, Yoga and Vedanta regards the world as evolved out of Prakrti. Vedanta regards prakrti as the power of Ishvara. The yoga regards prakrti as independent of Ishvara. The samkhya does not believe in Ishvara. Samkhya system is based on the dualistic nature of reality, emphasizing the distinction between the self (Purusha) and matter (Prakriti). Purusha's connecting with Prakriti is the cause of suffering and ability to dissociate from Prakriti is defined as true knowledge by Samkhya. Duality and plurality, according to Nyaya is produced due to Buddhi (discriminative faculty).

पूर्वमीमांसा || Purva Mimamsa

Mimamsa also regards the world as formed out of atoms under the guidance of the law of karma.

Applications of Nyaya Darshana

The purpose of Nyaya is critical examination of the objects of knowledge by means of the canons of logical proof. The Nyaya system deals critically with metaphysical problems. It contains discussions on psychology, logic, metaphysics and theology. The Nyaya is intended to furnish a correct method of philosophical enquiry into all the objects and subjects of human knowledge, including the process of reasoning and laws of thought. The evidence of the senses is submitted to a critical enquiry. The Nyaya gives a description of the mechanism of knowledge in detail.

Nyaya is the basis of all Sanskrit philosophical studies. It is an introduction to all systematic philosophy. It is the preliminary course for a student of Philosophy. A study of the Nyaya Darsana develops the power of reasoning or arguing.

Nyayasutras lay emphasis on valid knowledge, reasoning and evidence and thus makes it relevant in various contemporary contexts such as various science and technology fields, law and justice, ethics, economics, media and communication. Here’s an exploration of its current utility: