Anvikshiki (आन्वीक्षिकी)

Anvikshiki (Sanskrit: आन्वीक्षिकी) refers to the science of inquiry. Mm. Vidyabhushana argues that the Upanishads which dealt with the Atman and its destiny constituted a very important branch of study called Atmavidya, the study about Atman, or Adhyatma-vidya, the spiritual science or Brahmavidya, the divine science, which has been the foundation of all other sciences. The science of Atman was at a later stage called Anvikshiki, the science of inquiry. Ancient logic was called Anvikshiki or the science of debate, but with the introduction of syllogism or proper reasoning it came to be called Nyaya.

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

Metaphysics raises the basic issues about the ultimate nature of reality. The term 'metaphysics' has been explained in various senses and aspects by both Eastern and Western philosophers of various times. The metaphysical continuum ranges from idealism (mind and spiritual forces are ultimately real) to materialism (matter-energy and physical forces alone are real). Prasad (1958, p. 82) notes that the dialogue and discourses that characterized the Upanishadic period naturally resulted in the formulation of definite methods of debating and forms of reasoning, which gave rise to a science originally called anviksiki (the science of enquiry), then tarka-vidya (science of reasoning), and ultimately Nyaya-Shastra (the science of logic). Anvikshiki began as a science of general enquiry and attempts to answer theories to understand the metaphysical nature of human mind, consciousness and logic. Later on it assumed a more specified form and became the science of pure reasoning. The transitions from the predominance of intuition to the intellect mode seem to have reached stability during the period when the Nyaya school of thought came into predominance. Ānvīsikī was held in very high esteem due to the authority that it attaches to the vedas. Kings were trained in logic and the entity of reasoning was acknowledged in the administration of justice. Kautilya in his arthaśāstra characterizes Ānvīshikī (logic) as the lamp of all sciences. Sharda opines that Kautilya might have considered including Anvikshiki as one of the four branches of knowledge, as he regarded consciousness as self-introspection or Svadhyaaya. Svadhyaaya is a virtuous observance that is associated with introspection and ‘study of self’, according to various scholars. The mature handling of life is possible through self-introspection and self-introspection is possible only when Anvikshiki is adopted in life as a part of knowledge. Apparently self-introspection helps in reviving the ‘ethical self’ of individual.

प्रदीपः सर्वविद्यानामुपायः सर्वकर्मणाम् ।। आश्रयः सर्वधर्माणां शश्वदान्वीक्षिकी मता ।। ०१.२.१२ ।। (Kaut. Arth. 1.2.12) pradīpaḥ sarvavidyānāmupāyaḥ sarvakarmaṇām || āśrayaḥ sarvadharmāṇāṃ śaśvadānvīkṣikī matā || 01.2.12 ||

Ānvīshikī (logic) has ever been esteemed as the lamp of all sciences, the resource of all actions and the shelter of all virtues. Anvikshiki is like the illuminator of all other branches of knowledge, the medium for all actions and the protector of all principles.

Dr. Vidyabhushana elaborates extensively about the origins of Nyayashastra in his famous work titled, A History of Indian Logic, and observes that Anvikshiki dealing with the theory of reasons was developed into Logic, it was called Nyayashastra, the science of true reasoning; scholars like Dr. Raghunath Ghosh, further discussed about this topic.

व्युत्पत्तिः॥Etymology

Anvikshiki (ānvīkṣikī), the word originated from the root verb ईक्ष् (īkṣ). The root īkṣ is used in the sense ‘to see, to perceive’ as per the dhatupatha of Ashtadhyayi. Anvikshiki is explained as श्रवणादनु ईक्षा पर्य्यालोचना प्रयोजनमस्याः । śravaṇādanu īkṣā paryyālocanā prayojanamasyāḥ | to mean 'hearing followed by seeing and completely engaged in thinking about it is the purpose of this'.

Anvikshiki not only means ‘to see’, it also conveys; perceive, observe, regard, consider, think, reflect and investigate. Apte explains it as follows, 'shubhaashubha paryalochayati'. Thus, the meaning of the verb ‘iksh’ can be expanded much further than just ‘Seeing’. Anu-ikshana can be taken in the sense, ‘A minute search (within the self)’. ‘The search within the self’ can be interpreted or considered in many ways.

Amarakosha describes Anvikshiki, as the science of inquiry, आन्वीक्षिकी दण्डनीतिस्तर्कविद्यार्थशास्त्रयोः॥ (Amar. 1.6.5

आन्वीक्षिकी विविध ग्रन्थेषु ॥ Anvikshiki Described in Various Texts

The theory of reasoning (hetu) which formed an important subject of Anvikshiki, grew out of debates in councils of learned men called as Parishad. For example, in Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka Upanishads there are references to councils for the discussion of metaphysical subjects, of Atman, and the nature of the Supreme Being. Prashnopanishad is by nature the report of proceedings of a council in which six sages approach Pippalada, to ask him questions and discuss about the creation and sustenance of life force. Such council was called samsad, samiti, sabha, and parishad and it consisted of four, ten, or twenty-one learned people. Such debates or dialogues appear to be the precursors of the theory of reasons treated in Anvikshiki. The words which had to be used in special senses to carry on debates in the councils, constituted the technical terms of the Anvikshiki. Some of them include, tarka (reasoning), vaada (debate), aitihya (tradition), pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference), yukti (continuous argument), jalpa (wrangling), vitanda (cavil), nirnaya (ascertainment) etc. Tantrayukti or the forms of scientific argument, outlines a list of at least thirty-two technical terms to systematize debates in Parishads or learned councils. The terms included in this list appear more so in Nyaya philosphy apart from usage in Ayurvedic texts such as Sushruta and Charaka samhitas, and in Arthashastra (Polity text).

Nitisara of Kamandaka explicitly states that a king, after having controlled his senses should direct his attention to the cultivation of the following four branches of learning, in co-operation with those precepts well-versed in these subjects.

1. आन्वीक्षिकी ॥ ānvīkṣikī
2. त्रयी ॥ trayī (Veda Trayi)
3. वार्ता ॥ vārtā (Agriculture, cattlebreeding and trade)
4. दण्डनीतिः ॥ daṇḍanītiḥ

Anvikshiki, Trayi, Varta and Dandaniti - these only are the four eternal divisions of knowledge, that pave the way for humans to achieve happiness in this world.

आन्वीक्षिकीं त्रयीं वार्तां दण्डनीतिं च पार्थिवः। तद्विद्यैस्तत्कियोपेतैश्चिन्त येद् विनयान्वितः ॥ १ ॥

आन्वीक्षिकी त्रयी वार्ता दण्डनीतिश्च शाशती । विद्याश्चतस्र एवैता लोकसंस्थितिहेतवः ॥ २ (Nitisara. 2.1-2)

ānvīkṣikīṃ trayīṃ vārtāṃ daṇḍanītiṃ ca pārthivaḥ| tadvidyaistatkiyopetaiścinta yed vinayānvitaḥ || 1 ||

ānvīkṣikī trayī vārtā daṇḍanītiśca śāśatī | vidyāścatasra evaitā lokasaṃsthitihetavaḥ || 2

Manusamhita mentions Anvikshiki in the special sense of Logic, while explaining what the kings should learn

त्रैविद्येभ्यस्त्रयीं विद्यां दण्डनीतिं च शाश्वतीम् ।

आन्वीक्षिकीं चात्मविद्यां वार्तारम्भांश्च लोकतः । । ७.४३ । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.43)

traividyebhyastrayīṃ vidyāṃ daṇḍanītiṃ ca śāśvatīm |

ānvīkṣikīṃ cātmavidyāṃ vārtārambhāṃśca lokataḥ | | 7.43 | |

Meaning: From Brahmanas, well-versed in the three Vedas, he (a king) must learn the three Vedas (त्रयी विद्या), the eternal principle of punishment (दण्डनीति), the science of reasoning (आन्वीक्षिकीं), the science of Self-knowledge (आत्मविद्यां), the principles of trade, agriculture, and cattle rearing (वार्ता), and the science of wealth. Gautama Dharmasutras also mentions the term Anviksiki, with reference to the knowledge requirement of a king,

त्रय्याम् आन्वीक्षिक्या चाभिविनीतः ॥ trayyām ānvīkṣikyā cābhivinītaḥ ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 11.3)

Meaning: (He) should be an expert in the three Vedas and anvikshiki or the science of reasoning. In Valmiki Ramayana, we find Shri Rama instructing his brother, Bharata not to entertain those superfluous persons engaged only in worldly ways (लौकायतिकान्) who resort to the science of logic (आन्वीक्षिकीं) based on abstract reasoning, and indulge in futile talks, neglecting the principal texts of Dharmashastras.

धर्मशास्त्रेषु मुख्येषु विद्यमानेषु दुर्बुधाः। बुद्धिमान्वीक्षिकीं प्राप्य निरर्थं प्रवदन्ति ते।।2.100.39।। dharmaśāstreṣu mukhyeṣu vidyamāneṣu durbudhāḥ| buddhimānvīkṣikīṃ prāpya nirarthaṃ pravadanti te||2.100.39||

Mahabharata, also cites that Anvikshiki was the term to describe abstract reasoning which was regarded in a negative sense. Both Anvikshiki and Tarkavidya were employed by a Pandit interested in these subjects to prove the futility of the Vedas.

अहमासं पण्डितको हैतुको वेदनिन्दकः । आन्वीक्षिकीं तर्कविद्यामनुरक्तो निरर्थिकाम्‌ ॥ ४७ ॥ (Maha. Shan. Parv. 180.47) ahamāsaṃ paṇḍitako haituko vedanindakaḥ | ānvīkṣikīṃ tarkavidyāmanurakto nirarthikām‌ || 47 ||

Kautilya's Arthashastra, as mentioned in the earlier section, justifies adding Anvikshiki in the study of statecraft and stresses on it's importance among sciences. Kautilya combined Anvikshiki and Artha Neeti in Arthashastra. At the very beginning of his treatise Kautilya mentioned Anvikshiki or Logical Philosophy as an inseparable part of the study of common human life since it deals with the peripheral knowledge and at the same time holds a deep understanding of the ethical aspect of life. Apparently, this great Economist tried to bring philosophy into the study of statecraft for keeping the standard of common life as well-structured as possible. He says in Vinayadhikaranam that,

सांख्यं योगो लोकायतं चैत्यान्वीक्षिकी ।। ०१.२.१० ।। sāṃkhyaṃ yogo lokāyataṃ caityānvīkṣikī || 01.2.10 || (Kaut. Arth. 1.2.10)

Anvikshiki or the knowledge of metaphysical world, is a combination of Samkhya, Yoga and Lokaayata Darshanas.

Avikshiki accepted or condemned?

Anvikshiki regarded as the Hetushastra and Tarka-vidya, was applied to test the validity of the injunctions and prohibitions laid down in the Vedas and Dharmashastras. People in different walks of life found such inquiry to be a violation of the Vedic authority. Manu, Valmiki, Vyasa as we see in the previous section discredited those persons of perverse intellect, who engaged in science of logic, disregarded the Vedas and Dharmasutras with the support of Hetushastra. Vyasa Maharishi in Mahabharata, relates the story of a repentant Brahmana who, addicted to Tarka-vidya carried on debates rejecting Veda pramana and on that account turned into a jackal in his next birth. Vyasa further forbids the followers of Vedanta to engage in a dialogue with Tarkikas-one who debates. Penalties were inflicted to those who studied Tarkavidya, related as in Skandapurana, while Naishadiya charita describes Kali satirising the founder of Anvikshiki as "Go-tama" the most bovine among sages. It should be noted that the authors who discredited Anvikshiki did so only to refrain people from using Anvikshiki for the false cause of violating Vedic authority. Otherwise they supported this science as a necessary study for a king and Tarki (logician) as an indispensable member of a legal assembly.

While on the other hand, Anvikishiki, giving due weight to the Vedas, was held in high esteem by other people. Gautama Dharmasutras prescribed a course of training in Anvikshiki (logic) for the King and acknowledges the utility of Tarka (reasoning) in the administration of justice, though in case of incompatible conclusions, the ultimate decision rests on those who studied Vedas. Anvikshiki was thus appreciated by people who applied it as a technique of reasoning for ascertaining truths.