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Ancient Indian Botany (वनस्पतिशास्त्रम्) (view source)

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== Literature dealing with Plants ==

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In the Indian Knowledge Systems, though no single work devoted to botany is known, the knowledge of botany among Indians is well known from Vedas, works on Ayurveda, Krshishastra, Arthashastra and the lexicons. Terms like [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and Vanaspati vidya tell us that knowledge of botany flourished in the past and its principles and findings were the foundations to applied sciences such as [[Sasya Veda (सस्यवेदः)|agriculture]], and [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|ayurveda]]. There are many legends which indicate that ancient Indians had several beliefs associated with trees. Plant life was regarded sacred and worshipped. ~~For instance,~~

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In the Indian Knowledge Systems, though no single work devoted to botany is known, the knowledge of botany among Indians is well known from Vedas, works on Ayurveda, Krshishastra, Arthashastra and the lexicons. Terms like [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and Vanaspati vidya tell us that knowledge of botany flourished in the past and its principles and findings were the foundations to applied sciences such as [[Sasya Veda (सस्यवेदः)|agriculture]], and [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|ayurveda]]. There are many legends which indicate that ancient Indians had several beliefs associated with trees. Plant life was regarded sacred and worshipped.

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# Vedas - [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] of [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]], [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] describe plant life extensively~~. The most celebrated plant in the Vedas is the Soma highly regarded for its elixir in Somayajna. Its botanical identity however, has not been decided till date~~.<ref name=":5" />

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We find a mention of plants, their medicinal properties, uses as food grains, in yajnas, as wood and timber etc in various texts such as

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# Dharmasutras - Gobhilagrihya-sutra mentions that Asvattha brings danger of fire to one’s residence and that Udumbara leads to a series of optical diseases.

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# Puranas - Agnipurana, Matsyapurana,

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# Puranas - Agnipurana, Matsyapurana, Vayupurana mention about plants and their classification

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# Ramayana <ref>Murugesan, A and P. Sudhakar (2013) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325144789_Plant_and_Animal_diversity_in_Valmiki's_Ramayana Plant diversity in the Valmiki Ramayana]'' Chennai: C. P. R. Environmental Education Centre</ref>

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# Ramayana <ref>Murugesan, A and P. Sudhakar (2013) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325144789_Plant_and_Animal_diversity_in_Valmiki's_Ramayana Plant diversity in the Valmiki Ramayana]'' Chennai: C. P. R. Environmental Education Centre</ref> and Mahabharata<ref>Mani, N. (2007). ''Panchamved Mahabharat mein Padapa Vichar''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref> describe the ecological aspects and about plants having life

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# Mahabharata<ref>Mani, N. (2007). ''Panchamved Mahabharat mein Padapa Vichar''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref>

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# Ayurveda - Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas extensively describe various types of plants, their parts and their medicinal functions for treatment of different ailments of human beings and other creatures.

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# Ayurveda - Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas

# Brihatsamhita - speaks of trees like the Asoka and Punnaga which are beneficial to warfare.<ref name=":2">Ghose, A. K. 1971. Botany: The Vedic and Post-Vedic Periods. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Ed.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 375-392.</ref>

# Vrkshayurveda - 14 kandas described<ref name=":2" /><ref>A K, S., & Katti, A. (2022). Science of Plant Life - Vrikshayurveda: A Historical Account. ''International Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine'', ''12''(2), 4204–4208. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.47191/ijahm/v12i2.06</nowiki></ref>

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# Arthashastra -

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# Arthashastra -

# Sahitya - <ref>Sengupta, A. (2017). Samskrit sahitya mein vanaspati vijnan. ''International Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology'', ''3''(8), 1257–1264. <nowiki>https://www.ijsrset.com</nowiki></ref>

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== Morphological Characteristics <ref>Kachare, S. V., & Suryawanshi, S. R. (2010). HISTORY OF PLANT CLASSIFICATION IN ANCIENT INDIAN SCIENCE. ''International Journal of Current Research'', ''8'', 056–059. <nowiki>http://www.journalcra.com</nowiki></ref>==

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Plant ~~classification is based on morphology~~ of plants ~~since Yajurveda~~.

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==== Plant Parts ====

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Taittriya samhita identifies the parts of the plants as given below<blockquote>ओषधीभ्यः स्वाहा मूलेभ्यः स्वाहा तूलेभ्यः स्वाहा काण्डेभ्यः स्वाहा वल्शेभ्यः स्वाहा पुष्पेभ्यः स्वाहा फलेभ्यः स्वाहा गृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अगृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अवपन्नेभ्यः स्वाहा शयानेभ्यः स्वाहा सर्वस्मै स्वाहा ॥ (Taittiriya Samhita 7.3.19)<ref>Taittriya Samhita ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Kanda 7 Prapathaka 3])</ref></blockquote>Meaning: To the plants hail! To the roots hail! To the panicles hail! To the joints hail! To the twigs hail! To the flowers hail! To the fruits hail! To those that are used hail! To those that are not used hail! To those that have fallen off hail! To those that are lying (on the ground) hail! To all hail!<ref name=":8" /><blockquote>मधुमन् मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन् मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव । मधुमत्पर्णं मधुमत्पुष्पमासां मधोः सम्भक्ता अमृतस्य भक्षो घृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुरोगवम् ॥१२॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.12)<ref name=":7" />

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~~==== Plant Parts ====~~

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madhuman mūlaṃ madhumadagramāsāṃ madhuman madhyaṃ vīrudhāṃ babhūva | madhumatparṇaṃ madhumatpuṣpamāsāṃ madhoḥ sambhaktā amṛtasya bhakṣo ghṛtamannaṃ duhratāṃ gopurogavam ||12||</blockquote>In Atharvaveda (8.7.12) we find plant parts as follows<ref name=":3" />

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Taittriya samhita identifies the parts of the plants as given below<blockquote>ओषधीभ्यः स्वाहा मूलेभ्यः स्वाहा तूलेभ्यः स्वाहा काण्डेभ्यः स्वाहा वल्शेभ्यः स्वाहा पुष्पेभ्यः स्वाहा फलेभ्यः स्वाहा गृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अगृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अवपन्नेभ्यः स्वाहा शयानेभ्यः स्वाहा सर्वस्मै स्वाहा ॥ (Taittiriya Samhita 7.3.19)<ref>Taittriya Samhita ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Kanda 7 Prapathaka 3])</ref></blockquote>Meaning: To the plants hail! To the roots hail! To the panicles hail! To the joints hail! To the twigs hail! To the flowers hail! To the fruits hail! To those that are used hail! To those that are not used hail! To those that have fallen off hail! To those that are lying (on the ground) hail! To all hail!<ref name=":8" /><blockquote>मधुमन् मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन् मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव । मधुमत्पर्णं मधुमत्पुष्पमासां मधोः सम्भक्ता अमृतस्य भक्षो घृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुरोगवम् ॥१२॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.12~~)<ref name=":7" />~~</blockquote>In Atharvaveda (8.7.12) we find plant parts as follows<ref name=":3" />

# Mūlam (मूलं)–Root

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==== Growth Habitats ====

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The Oshadhi Sukta of Atharvaveda classifies the plant world into seven types:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>प्रस्तृणती स्तम्बिनीरेकशुङ्गाः प्रतन्वतीरोषधीरा वदामि । अंशुमतीः कण्डिनीर्या विशाखा ह्वयामि ते वीरुधो वैश्वदेवीरुग्राः पुरुषजीवनीः ॥४॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.4)<ref name=":7">Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Kanda 8 Sukta 7]) Oshadhi Sukta</ref></blockquote>It presents an account of nine types of growth habits of plants. These are mentioned here below:

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The Oshadhi Sukta of Atharvaveda classifies the plant world into seven types:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>प्रस्तृणती स्तम्बिनीरेकशुङ्गाः प्रतन्वतीरोषधीरा वदामि । अंशुमतीः कण्डिनीर्या विशाखा ह्वयामि ते वीरुधो वैश्वदेवीरुग्राः पुरुषजीवनीः ॥४॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.4)<ref name=":7">Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Kanda 8 Sukta 7]) Oshadhi Sukta</ref>

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prastṛṇatī stambinīrekaśuṅgāḥ pratanvatīroṣadhīrā vadāmi | aṃśumatīḥ kaṇḍinīryā viśākhā hvayāmi te vīrudho vaiśvadevīrugrāḥ puruṣajīvanīḥ ||4||</blockquote>It presents an account of nine types of growth habits of plants. These are mentioned here below:

# Prastr̥ṇatī– Short plants, spreading in all directions.

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# Viśhākhā – Plants with branches spreading in all directions.

# Manjarī – Leaves or flowers in clusters.

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Manusmriti classifies all immovable creatures which grow from seeds as udbhijjāḥ and they are of two kinds - some shoot from the seeds, while others develop from stem cuttings planted in soil. Udbhijjāḥ are of eight kinds based on their growth patterns as follows<blockquote>उद्भिज्जाः स्थावराः सर्वे बीजकाण्डप्ररोहिणः । ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ता बहुपुष्पफलोपगाः ।। १.४६ ।।

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अपुष्पाः फलवन्तो ये ते वनस्पतयः स्मृताः । पुष्पिणः फलिनश्चैव वृक्षास्तूभयतः स्मृताः ।। १.४७ ।।

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गुच्छगुल्मं तु विविधं तथैव तृणजातयः । बीजकाण्डरुहाण्येव प्रताना वल्ल्य एव च ।।१.४८।। (Manu. Smrt. 1.46-48)<ref>Manu Smriti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1])</ref>

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udbhijjāḥ sthāvarāḥ sarve bījakāṇḍaprarohiṇaḥ | oṣadhyaḥ phalapākāntā bahupuṣpaphalopagāḥ || 1.46 |

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apuṣpāḥ phalavanto ye te vanaspatayaḥ smṛtāḥ | puṣpiṇaḥ phalinaścaiva vṛkṣāstūbhayataḥ smṛtāḥ || 1.47 ||

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gucchagulmaṃ tu vividhaṃ tathaiva tṛṇajātayaḥ | bījakāṇḍaruhāṇyeva pratānā vallya eva ca ||1.48|| (Manu. Smrt. 1.46-48)</blockquote>Udbhijjāḥ are categorized as<ref name=":10">Bhattacharjee, S., & Bhattacharya, M. K. (2007). ''Knowledge of Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology of Plants in some Sanskrit Texts of Ancient India''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref>

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# oṣadhi (herb)

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# vanaspati (tree)

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# vṛkṣaḥ (trees)

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# guccha (a bunch of many creepers originating from the same root)

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# gulma (plants in which many branches of stem develop just from the top of the root)

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# tṛṇa (grasses)

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# pratānā (plants with tendrils)

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# vally (creepers twinning around a tree)

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==== Classification of Plants ====

{| class="wikitable"

|+Table 2: Classification of Plants in Indian Treatises

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!

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!Text

!Reference

!Classification

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|याः फलिनीर्या अफला अपुष्पा याश्च पुष्पिणीः । बृहस्पतिप्रसूतास्ता नो मुञ्चन्त्वंहसः ॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.97.15)

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yāḥ phalinīr yā aphalā apuṣpā yāś ca puṣpiṇīḥ | bṛhaspatiprasūtās tā no muñcantv aṃhasaḥ ||

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yāḥ phalinīr yā aphalā apuṣpā yāś ca puṣpiṇīḥ | bṛhaspatiprasūtās tā no muñcantv aṃhasaḥ

|

# phalinī - bearing fruits

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# aphalā - not bearing fruits

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# aphalā - not bearing fruits

# apuṣpā - non-flowering

# puṣpiṇīḥ - flowering plants

All these progeny of Brhaspati, energized by the physician, relieve us from suffering.<ref>Rigveda Samhita with Sayanacharya Bhashya, Vol 4. Poona: Vaidik Samshodhan Mandal (pp. 656)</ref>

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|flowering and fruiting nature<ref name=":10"~~>Bhattacharjee, S., & Bhattacharya, M. K. (2007). ''Knowledge of Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology of Plants in some Sanskrit Texts of Ancient India''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.<~~/~~ref~~>

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|flowering and fruiting nature<ref name=":10" />

|-

|Atharvaveda Oshadhi sukta (8.7.27)

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|

# puṣpavatī - bearing flowers

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# prasūmatī -

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# prasūmatī -

# phalinī - bearing fruits

# aphalā - not bearing fruits

|flowering and fruiting nature<ref name=":10" />

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|

|-

|Chandogya Upanishad

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# Jīva-ja – organism born alive

# Udbhij-ja – sprouting/originating from the ground (germinating or germination)

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|fundamental classification based on place of origin of the organism;

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|fundamental classification based on place of origin of the organism;

|-

|Shrimad Bhagavatam

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उत्स्रोतसस्तमःप्राया अन्तःस्पर्शा विशेषिणः ॥ १९ ॥ vanaspatyoṣadhilatā tvaksārā vīrudho drumāḥ |

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utsrotasastamaḥprāyā antaḥsparśā viśeṣiṇaḥ || 19 || (Bhag. Pura. 3.10.19)<ref>Shrimad Bhagavata Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6 Skanda 3 Adhyaya 10])</ref>

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utsrotasastamaḥprāyā antaḥsparśā viśeṣiṇaḥ ॥ 19 (Bhag. Pura. 3.10.19)<ref>Shrimad Bhagavata Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6 Skanda 3 Adhyaya 10])</ref>||

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|

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# vanaspati (tree)

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# vanaspati

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# oṣadhi (herb)

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# oṣadhi ()

# latā (that grow with support)

# tvaksārā (pipe-plants)

# vīrudha (creepers without support)

# drumāḥ (trees)

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|based on morphological characteristics as explained in Table 1

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| based on morphological characteristics as explained in Table 1

|-

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|~~Manu~~

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|Kautilya's Arthashastra

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|~~उद्भिज्जाः स्थावराः सर्वे बीजकाण्डप्ररोहिणः ।~~

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|

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~~ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ता बहुपुष्पफलोपगाः । । १.४६ । । (Manu. Smrt. 1.46-48~~

|

|}

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==== Charaka Samhita ====

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Acharya Charaka alludes to plant classification and identification of plant parts in the context of preparing drugs. According to Sutrasthana (1.72) there are four types of plants<ref>Singh R.H., Singh G., Sodhi J.S., Dixit U.. (2020). Deerghanjiviteeya Adhyaya. In: Dixit U., Deole Y.S., Basisht G., (Eds.), Charak Samhita New Edition (1<sup>st</sup> ed. pp.3). CSRTSDC. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s01.003</nowiki></ref><blockquote>फलैर्वनस्पतिः पुष्पैर्वानस्पत्यः फलैरपि| ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ताः प्रतानैर्वीरुधः स्मृताः||७२|| phalairvanaspatiḥ puṣpairvānaspatyaḥ phalairapi| oṣadhyaḥ phalapākāntāḥ pratānairvīrudhaḥ smṛtāḥ||72|| (Char. Samh. 1.72)<ref name=":11">Charaka Samhita ([https://www.carakasamhitaonline.com/index.php?title=Deerghanjiviteeya_Adhyaya#Plant.E2.80.99s_parts_used_as_drugs Sutrasthana 1])</ref></blockquote>Based in the fruiting and flowering nature of the plant they are of four types

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# फलैर्वनस्पतिः - plants which bear fruit without visible flowers are known as vanaspati (Gymno-spermia).

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# पुष्पैर्वानस्पत्यः - plants bearing both flowers and fruits are known as vanaspatya (angio-spermia).

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# ओषध्यः - The plants which die out after flowering are known as aushadhi (annuals).

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# वीरुधः - The plants which creep or twine are known as virudha (creepers).

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In Sutrasthana (1.74) plant parts used for the preparation of drugs are mentioned.<blockquote>मूलत्वक्सारनिर्यासनाल(ड)स्वरसपल्लवाः| क्षाराः क्षीरं फलं पुष्पं भस्म तैलानि कण्टकाः||७३||

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पत्राणि शुङ्गाः कन्दाश्च प्ररोहाश्चौद्भिदो गणः|७४| mūlatvaksāraniryāsanāla(ḍa)svarasapallavāḥ| kṣārāḥ kṣīraṃ phalaṃ puṣpaṃ bhasma tailāni kaṇṭakāḥ||73||

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patrāṇi śuṅgāḥ kandāśca prarohāścaudbhido gaṇaḥ|74| (Char. Samh. 1.73-74)<ref name=":11" /></blockquote>The roots, bark, pith, exudation, stalk, juice, sprouts, alkalis, latex, fruits, flowers, ash, oil, thorns, leaves, buds, bulbs and off-shoots of the plants are used as drugs.

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In Sutrasthana (27.4)<ref>Jaiswal M.L., Mandal S.K., Deole Y. S.. (2020). Annapanavidhi Adhyaya. In: Sirdeshpande M.K., Deole Y.S., Basisht G., (Eds.), Charak Samhita New Edition (1<sup>st</sup> ed. pp.29). CSRTSDC. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.47468/CSNE.2020.e01.s01.029</nowiki></ref> Acharya Charaka gives a classification of plants based on their food value.

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# शमीधान्यवर्गः (class of pulses) - Green-gram (''mudga''), Horse-gram (Dolichos biflorus) etc., belong to this class and they are of twelve kinds.

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# शूकधान्यवर्गः (class of corns) - rice, wheat, barley etc., belong to this class.

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# शाकवर्गः (vegetables) - 18 vegetables

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# फलवर्गः (fruits) - various types of fruits

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# हरितवर्गः (green herbs) - ginger/''adraka'' (Zingiber officinale), lemon/ ''jambira'' (Citrus limon), Coriander/''dhanyaka'' (Coriandrum sativum are among this class

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# इक्षुवर्गः (sugarcane and its products) - sugarcane juice and derived products such as guda or jaggery belong this class.

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# Oils such as til, castor, rapeseed oil etc., and other oils used in cooking.

== Plants in Indian Alchemy ==

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