Ancient Indian Botany (वनस्पतिशास्त्रम्)

Botany - Study of Plant Kingdom

Plants and human beings have an intimate relationship and it is well recognized since ancient times. Science in general and plant science in particular is an integral part of the Vēdas. Plants give oxygen, food and medicines to human beings and hence have to be protected at all times. References to the cultivation of cereals, such as wheat, barley, rice and ragi in the Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas-Upanishads bear ample testimony to the importance of plants as food and the development of agriculture in the Vedic times. Vedic seers were well known for their reverence to nature and natural forces and their eco-centric lifestyle is evident in the mantras of Rigveda. Yajna being the subject matter of the Vedas, there is no ritualistic activity in yajnas without the usage of a plant product.

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

Vrksha or tree is the symbol of life and growth. It stands for eternity and selfless well-being. The four vedas, describe many herbs, vines, shrubs, grasses and tree species used in yajnas. Vajasaneya Samhita advocates reverence and devotion to trees and grains, medicinal herbs, forests, and vegetation; they are regarded as deities or devatas who are bestowed with the quality of selfless giving.

Archeological evidence for the prehistoric use of botanical products in the Indian sub-continent, is scanty and scattered and does not allow a chronological history of the uses of plants. The oldest record of such use is from the site of Indus Valley civilization, in which cereals (wheat, barley, rice and ragi), woods and other plant products were used. The Indus Valley people used to live in villages, cities and towns, wore clothes, cultivated crops including wheat, barley, millet, dates, vegetables, melon and other fruits and cotton; worshipped trees, glazed their pottery with the juice of plants and painted them with a large number of plant designs.

Literature dealing with Plants

In the Indian Knowledge Systems, though no single work devoted to botany is known, the knowledge of botany among Indians is well known from Vedas, works on Ayurveda, Krshishastra, Arthashastra and the lexicons. Terms like Vrikshayurveda and Vanaspati vidya tell us that knowledge of botany flourished in the past and its principles and findings were the foundations to applied sciences such as agriculture, and ayurveda.  There are many legends which indicate that ancient Indians had several beliefs associated with trees. Plant life was regarded sacred and worshipped.

We find a mention of plants, their medicinal properties, uses as food grains, in yajnas, as wood and timber etc., in various texts such as

1. Vedas - Samhitas, Brahmanas, Aranyakas and Upanishads of Rigveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda describe plant life extensively with reference to food grains, samidhas in yajnas, seasonal crops.
2. Dharmasutras - Gobhilagrihya-sutra mentions that Asvattha brings danger of fire to one’s residence and that Udumbara leads to a series of optical diseases.
3. Puranas - Agnipurana, Matsyapurana, and Vayupurana mention about plants and their classification, plant parts and their usage.
4. Ramayana and Mahabharata describe the ecological aspects and consciousness in plants
5. Ayurveda - Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas extensively describe various types of plants, their parts and their medicinal functions for treatment of different ailments of human beings and other creatures.
6. Brihatsamhita - mentions trees like the Asoka and Punnaga which are used for warfare.
7. Vrkshayurveda - 14 kandas described
8. Arthashastra classifies plants based on their economic uses.

व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

Shabdakalpadruma mentions that the root word for वृक्षः (Vrksha) is व्रश्च used in the sense of छेदने, to cut. Amarakosha gives a few synonyms of trees depicting their characteristics.

वृक्षो महीरुहः शाखी विटपी पादपस्तरुः । अनोकहः कुटः शालः पलाशी द्रुद्रुमागमाः ॥ vṛkṣo mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapastaruḥ | anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ palāśī drudrumāgamāḥ || (Amara. 2.4.5)

अगच्छः १४ विष्टरः १५ महीरुट् १६ कुचिः १७ स्थिरः १८ कारस्करः १९ नगः २० अगः २१ कुटारः २२ । इति शब्दरत्नावली ॥

agacchaḥ 14 viṣṭaraḥ 15 mahīruṭ 16 kuciḥ 17 sthiraḥ 18 kāraskaraḥ 19 nagaḥ 20 agaḥ 21 kuṭāraḥ 22 | iti śabdaratnāvalī ||

विटपः २३ कुजः २४ वनस्पतिः २५ अद्रिः २६ शिखरी २७ कुठः २८ । इति जटाधरः ॥ कुञ्जः २९ क्षितिरुहः ३० अङ्घ्रिपः ३१ भूरुहः ३२ भूजः ३३ महीजः ३४ धरणीरुह ३५ क्षितिजः ३६ शालः ३७ । इति राजनिर्घण्टः ॥

viṭapaḥ 23 kujaḥ 24 vanaspatiḥ 25 adriḥ 26 śikharī 27 kuṭhaḥ 28 | iti jaṭādharaḥ || kuñjaḥ 29 kṣitiruhaḥ 30 aṅghripaḥ 31 bhūruhaḥ 32 bhūjaḥ 33 mahījaḥ 34 dharaṇīruha 35 kṣitijaḥ 36 śālaḥ 37 | iti rājanirghaṇṭaḥ ||

They are vrksha, mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapa, taruḥ, anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ drudruma and palāśī according to Amarakosha; agacchaḥ, viṣṭaraḥ, mahīruṭ, kuciḥ, sthiraḥ, kāraskaraḥ, nagaḥ, agaḥ, kuṭāraḥa as per Shabdaratnavali and other terms are synonyms for trees. A few term and their meanings are explained below.

• महीरुह ​(मह्यां रोहति जायत इति) - that which gets planted and grows on Earth
• शाखिन् (शाखाऽस्त्यस्य।) - that which is branching, ramifying
• विटपिन् (विटपोऽस्यास्ति) - that which has branches or boughs
• पादप (पादेन मूलेन पिबति रसानिति) ​that which drinks (sap) from feet (roots)
• तरु (तरति समुद्रादिकमनेनेति as per Shabdakalpadhruma) that by which people overcome heat
• अनोकह (अनसः शकटस्य अकं गमनं) ​that which does not quit his home or place (does not move)
• कुटः (कौटिल्ये as per Vachaspatyam) that which is crooked
• शालः (वृक्षभेदे) a kind of a very tall and stately tree
• पलाशी (पलाशं विद्यतेऽस्य) which has leaves
• अगमः (न गच्छतीति) that which doesn’t move

Similar scientific basis was adopted in naming the different varieties of plants based on various factors. Plants were named according to

• special association (e.g. Datura (Datura stramonium) is called Sivasekhara as the flower is associated with Siva, Ficus religiosa is called bodhidhruma as Buddha attained enlightened under this tree, Asoka (Saraca indica) is so called after legendary association with Asoka forest in which Sita Devi was confined)
• medicinal nature (e.g. Dadrughna (Cassia fistula) is that which cures ring-worm, kushnashini (Somaraji) that which cures leprosy, Abhyata (Myrobalan haritaki) that which takes away pain)
• domestic utility (e.g. karpasa (cotton) that out of which clothes are woven, dantadhavana (Acacia catechu) is used for cleaning teeth) dhanudhruma (Bambusa) that out of which bows are made),
• special characteristics (e.g., phenilaṃ or Sapindus emarginatus from the Sapindaceae (Soapberry) family have seeds that lather or foam in water, Bahupada (Ficus bengalensis) many legged with prop roots serving as legs),
• special morphological features such as number of leaflets, nature or shape of leaf, shape and color of flowers.
• geographical association such as Souveera (Ziziphus jujube, indigenous to Soubir or Saurastra), Champeya (Michelia sps., indigenous to Champa-Bhagalpur), Maghadhi (Jasmine or Piper longum - indigenous to Magadha or North Bihar), Vaidehi (Pepper- indigenous to Videha-Mithila)
• environmental association such as Jalaja/Pankaja (Lotus) associated with water and mud, Nadisarja (Arjuna tree-Terminalia arjuna) grows on the banks of rivers, Vanaprastha (Mahua - Palasa tree) grows in woodlands)

Table 1: The terms used for plants in Shrimad Bhagavatam वनस्पत्योषधिलता त्वक्सारो वीरुधो द्रुमाः ॥

Sanskrit Name	English Term	Derivation/Explanation from Shabdakalpadhruma and Vachaspatyam and Koshas
वृक्षः (vṛkṣaḥ)	Tree which bears both fruits and flowers	Derived from the root व्रश्च used in the sense of छेदने or to cut, the one that gets cut
वनस्पतिः (vanaspatiḥ)	It means 'the lord over forest.' A tree or forest in general	विना पुष्पं फलिद्रुमः । अपुष्पाः फलवन्तो ये ते वनस्पतयः स्मृताः ॥ वृक्षमात्रम् । इति मेदिनी। vinā puṣpaṃ phalidrumaḥ | apuṣpāḥ phalavanto ye te vanaspatayaḥ smṛtāḥ || vṛkṣamātram | iti medinī | Vanaspatis or trees bear fruit without an apparent flowering stage.
द्रुमाः (drumāḥ)	A tree	ये पुष्पैः फलन्ति ते द्रुमाः । ye puṣpaiḥ phalanti te drumāḥ | A tree that bears fruits through flowers is termed drumāḥ.
ओषधयः (oṣadhayaḥ)	It is a plant or medicinal herb that lasts for one year (annual plants)	ओषधयः फलपाकान्ताः । oṣadhayaḥ phalapākāntāḥ | one that bears abundant flowers and fruits, and withers after the fruiting phase is termed oṣadhi
लता/वल्ली वीरुधः (latā/vallī vīrudhaḥ)	Creepers	लता आरोहणापेक्षाः । latā ārohaṇāpekṣāḥ | Lata is a creeper tending to spread and climb up (with support) शाखादिरहिता गुडूच्यादिः । and is devoid of branches e.g., Guduchi and others; काठिन्येन आरोहणानपेक्षा वीरुधः । Creepers without a tendency to climb, and having thorns are called vīrudha (spreading on the ground).
त्वक्सार (tvaksāraḥ)	Pipe plants	त्वक्सारो वेण्वादयः । tvaksāro veṇvādayaḥ | They include the pipe-plants such as bamboo and others

Plants in Vedic Literature

Reverence to Plants

Reverence to trees, plants and medicinal herbs which have evolved even before human beings existed in India since Vedic times. In Rigveda, 10th Mandala Sukta 97 the trees are hailed as the divine mothers

• शतं वो अम्ब धामानि सहस्रमुत वो रुहः । अधा शतक्रत्वो यूयमिमं मे अगदं कृत ॥२॥ O mother (herb), hundreds are the places where you arise and work, thousands your varieties and extensions, and hundreds your gifts and efficacies. Make this life free from affliction and disease.
• ओषधीरिति मातरस्तद्वो देवीरुप ब्रुवे । सनेयमश्वं गां वास आत्मानं तव पूरुष ॥४॥ O plant! I hail you, the divine mother (of mankind).

ऋग्वेदः ॥ Rigveda

The Rigveda has frequent references to the use of the plough, the sowing of seeds, the cutting of corn with the sickle, the threshing and winnowing of the corn, the practice of channel irrigation and the like. Agricultural pursuits definitely made further progress as is evidenced by the use of larger and heavier plough, mention of several types of agricultural produce such as wheat, beans, corn, sesamum, extraction of oil from sesamum, relationship between seasons and the harvest, plant diseases and some attempt to deal with them with magical spell. The terms like Vriksha (trees), Oshadhi (herbs), lata (creepers), gulma (shrub), bheshaja (medicinal plants) occur frequently in the mantras.

The most celebrated plant that finds frequent mention in the Rgveda and later Samhitas is the Soma plant. The Vedic Indians hail Soma as the Lord of the forest (vanaraja). The botanical identity of Soma plant, however, has not been decided till today. The probable candidates are Ephedra (a Gymnosperm); Sarcostemma (flowering plant); and mushroom (a fungus).

Apart from these we find mention of Cotton (Gossypium sps), which is and was recognized as a commercially important in the Indus Valley civilization. People not only grew cotton but devised methods of ginning, spinning and weaving it into clothes.

Indus Valley archeological findings further record the use of wood particularly deodar (Cedrus deodara) and rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia) for a coffin, and Indian jujube or ber in Hindi (Zizyphus jujuba) for a wooden mortar for pounding grains. Choice of these woods for specific purposes shows not only knowledge of where the trees grow but also of the characteristic qualities of the woods used. Timbers recovered from Lothal in Gujarat were of Acacia sps., Tectona grandis, Adina cordifolia indicate that the Harappans knew of the quality of these timbers nearly as much as we know of them today.

यजुर्वेदः ॥ Yajurveda

The trees and plants revealed in the Vēdas are the key for the ritualistic activities or yajñas. Initiating any yajña begins primarily with the covering of the yajñavēdi (yajña alter) with the darbha [Desmostachya bipinnata], which is a grass. Several implements used in yajñas are manufactured from the wood of specified trees was described in Yajurveda. Yajñas and yāgās being the fundamental characteristics of the Yajurveda, involved extensive usage of plant products. The names of plants, trees and their products that are specifically used in the yajñas, yāgās, hōmās and iṣṭis are elaborately described in the Saṃhitās and Brāhmaṇās.

Seven samidhas of importance in yajñas

The homa involves two things– the material to be offered in yajña and the implement used during the yajña. Of them, the ‘samidhas’ are very commonly used as the materials from several trees and plants offered into the fire of yajñas. Seven are cherished offerings to Agni include

• aśvattha,
• udumbara,
• palāśa,
• śami,
• vaikankata,
• aśanihata,
• puskara parna

Several botanical terms are described in the four Vēdas and particularly in the Yajurvēda. The Taittriya Samhita and the Vajasaneya Samhita describe and explain that plants comprise of various parts and the botanical terms mentioned are identified with those modern botany. Classifying plants according to their vegetative and reproductive properties, form and growth is similar to that of the modern classifications of the plant kingdom by Carolus Linnaeus and others. Another interesting feature noticed in the Vajasaneya Samhita, Taittriya Brahmana and Atharvaveda is the description of an entire region by the type of plants growing in that area, e.g. naḍvala (a place abounding in reeds), śipālya (a region where the plant śipala grows).

Many botanical and agricultural terms, food grains, trees, herbs are mentioned in the ‘Śrī Rudram’ mantras of Yajurveda (Taittriya Samhita 4-5, 4-7 and Vajasaneya Samhita 16).

अथर्ववेदः ॥ Atharvaveda

The growing acquaintance with plant life is further reflected in the appreciation of the medicinal properties of plants and in the appearance of a class of Atharvan priests specializing in the herbal treatment of diseases. In Atharvaveda the type, shape and morphology of plants is described making it the earliest recorded authority on plant morphology. Atharvaveda's Oshadhi sukta (8.7.12) elaborately describes various plant parts and its medicinal values to remove human ailments, thus throwing light on the fact that plant medicines where highly developed since ancient times.

Plants are Living Beings

Plants have been regarded as having sensitivity, feelings and the elemental nature of plants are described in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata. In the Bharadvaja Bhrigu Samvada, Maharshi Bharadwaja asks that since trees can neither see nor hear, nor smell, no feel pleasure, nor have a sense of touch, how then are they animate or living and how are they constituted by the five elements or panchabhutas? (Mahabharata Shan. Parv. 184.6-9)

भरद्वाज उवाच।

पञ्चभिर्यदि भूतैस्तु यक्ताः स्थावरजङ्गमाः। स्थावराणां न दृश्यन्ते शरीरे पञ्च धातवः।। 12-184-6

अनूष्मणामचेष्टानां घनानां चैव तत्त्वतः। वृक्षा नोपलभ्यन्ते शरीरे पञ्च धातवः।। 12-184-7

न शृणुन्ते न पश्यन्ति न गन्धरसवेदिनः। न चस्पर्शं विजानन्ति ते कथं पाञ्चभौतिकाः।। 12-184-8

अद्रवत्वादनग्नित्वादभूतित्वादवायुतः। आकाशस्याप्रमेयत्वाद्वृक्षाणां नास्ति भौतिकम्।। 12-184-9

भृगुरुवाच।

घनानामपि वृक्षाणामाकाशोऽस्ति न संशयः। तेषां पुष्पफलव्यक्तिर्नित्यं समुपपद्यते।। 12-184-10

ऊष्मतो म्लायते वर्णं त्वक्फलं पुष्पमेव च। म्लायते शीर्यते चापि स्पर्शस्तेनात्र विद्यते।। 12-184-11

वाय्वग्न्यशनिनिष्पेषैः फलं पुष्पं विशीर्यते। श्रोत्रेण गृह्यते शब्दस्तस्माच्छृण्वन्ति पादपाः।। 12-184-12

वल्ली वेष्टयते वृक्षं सर्वतश्चैव गच्छति। न ह्यदृष्टेश्च मार्गोऽस्ति तस्मात्पश्यन्ति पादपाः।। 12-184-13

पुण्यापुण्यैस्तथा गन्धैर्धूपैश्च विविधैरपि। अरोगाः पुष्पिताः सन्ति तस्माज्जिघ्रन्ति पादपाः।। 12-184-14

पादैः सलिलपानाच्च व्याधीनां चापि दर्शनात्। व्याधिप्रतिक्रियत्वाच्च विद्यते रसनं द्रुमे।। 12-184-15

वक्रेणोत्पलनालेन यथोर्ध्वं जलमाददेत्। तथा पवनसंयुक्तः पादेंः पिबति पादपः ॥ १६॥ 12-184-16

सुखदुःखयोश्च ग्रहणाच्छिन्नस्य च विरोहणात्। जीवं पश्यामि वृक्षाणामचैतन्यं न विद्यते।। 12-184-17

तेन तज्जलमादत्तं जरयत्यग्निमारुतौ। आहारपरिणामाच्च स्नेहो वृद्धिश्च जायते।। 12-184-18

Maharshi Bhrigu replies

“O Sage, although the trees seem solid, yet there is no doubt that they have the space. That is why it is possible for them to bear fruits and flowers.”

“The heat that the trees have shrivels or withers the leaves, the bark, the flowers and the fruits and they fall off. Therefore, it also proves that they have the sense of touch.”

“It has also been seen that when there is a loud sound like that of the harsh winds, fire, thunder, etc, the flowers and the fruits of trees fall off. This proves that trees can hear also.”

“The creeper covers the tree from all sides and climbs right to the top. No one can find his way unless he can see. This proves that trees can see too.”

“With pure and holy fragrance, the tree becomes healthy and grows better. This proves that they can smell also.”

“They drink water from their roots and if they are suffering from some disease, we can put some medicine in their roots. This way, we can treat them too. This proves that trees have the sense of taste.”

“Such as a man sucks water through a lotus stem into his mouth, likewise trees suck water through their roots upward with the help of wind.”

“When a tree is cut, it sprouts again and they accept joys and sorrows. Hence, I see that trees also have life and that they are not non-living things.”

“The wind and the heat inside the tree help it to digest the water that it takes in from its roots. Complete assimilation of the food gives it glossiness and it grows well.”

स्थावराणां लक्षणम् ॥ Plant Characteristics

Along with reverence, in Indian traditions plants were regarded as life force or prana and not inanimate or lifeless things; they have life even if they are immobile. Like any animate creature, they are sensitive to cold and heat, they feel happiness and sorrow, they drink water from their roots and also fall sick, etc.

Shrimad Bhagavata Purana, points out the general characteristics of plants as follows:

तेषां लक्षणं यथा, “उत्स्रोतसस्तमःप्राया अन्तःस्पर्शा विशेषिणः ॥” इति श्रीभागवतम् ॥

1. उत्स्रोतसः - ऊर्द्ध्वं स्रोत आहारसञ्चारो येषां ते । the process of uptake of food from below (from the ground) through upward channels
2. तमःप्रायाः - अव्यक्तचैतन्याः । dormancy of consciousness due to tamas guna
3. अन्तःस्पर्शाः - स्पर्शमेव जानन्ति नान्यत्तदापि अन्तरेव न बहिः । have an inner feeling (consciousness)
4. विशेषिणः - of many varieties

In Aitareya Brahmana and Koushitaki Brahamana, vanaspati or plants are termed as "Prana" because they protect mankind by giving prana-shakti or oxygen.

वनस्पतिं यजति प्राणो वै वनस्पतिः प्राणमेव तत्प्रीणाति प्राणं यजमाने दधाति | vanaspatiṃ yajati prāṇo vai vanaspatiḥ prāṇameva tatprīṇāti prāṇaṃ yajamāne dadhāti | (Aite. Brah. 2.4) प्राणो वनस्पतिः । prāṇo vanaspatiḥ | (Kous. Brah. 12.7)

In Atharvaveda (8.7.6-10) जीवलां नघारिषां जीवन्तीमोषधीमहम् ।... plants characteristics are given based on their qualities

1. जीवला ॥ life preserving or promoting longevity
2. नघारिषा ॥ one that does not cause harm
3. अरुन्धती ॥ one that protects marma areas or fills the wounds
4. उन्नयन्ती ॥ one that promotes, gives energy
5. मधुमती ॥ sweet
6. प्रचेतस ॥ one that gives chetana (life force)
7. मेदिनी ॥ one which nourishes
8. उग्रा ॥ one that produces severe effects
9. विषदूषणीः ॥ one that destroys poisons
10. बलासनाशनीः ॥ destroys kapha

Plants have preventive and curative properties. As प्रदूषनिवारकाः ॥ one that prevents pollution - Yajuveda mentions that plants prevent pollution and hence are called शमिता (शमनकर्ता)

वनस्पतिः शमिता देवोऽ अग्निः स्वदन्तु हव्यं मधुना घृतेन ॥ vanaspatiḥ śamitā devo’ agniḥ svadantu havyaṃ madhunā ghṛtena || (Shuk. Yaju. 29.35)

The supreme being takes an उग्रा or dreaded form as vanaspatis and cause significant effects (Atharvaveda and Koushitaki Brahmana), they cure many ailments and destroy disease causing germs. They have the capacity to promote energy, growth, and strength in all beings.

Plant Morphology and Habitats

Plant Parts

Taittriya samhita identifies the parts of the plants as given below

ओषधीभ्यः स्वाहा मूलेभ्यः स्वाहा तूलेभ्यः स्वाहा काण्डेभ्यः स्वाहा वल्शेभ्यः स्वाहा पुष्पेभ्यः स्वाहा फलेभ्यः स्वाहा गृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अगृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अवपन्नेभ्यः स्वाहा शयानेभ्यः स्वाहा सर्वस्मै स्वाहा ॥ (Taittiriya Samhita 7.3.19)

Meaning: To the plants hail! To the roots hail! To the panicles hail! To the joints hail! To the twigs hail! To the flowers hail! To the fruits hail! To those that are used hail! To those that are not used hail! To those that have fallen off hail! To those that are lying (on the ground) hail! To all hail! Trees have skanda or crown, having more number of leaves compared to herbaceous plants.

मधुमन् मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन् मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव । मधुमत्पर्णं मधुमत्पुष्पमासां मधोः सम्भक्ता अमृतस्य भक्षो घृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुरोगवम् ॥१२॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.12) madhuman mūlaṃ madhumadagramāsāṃ madhuman madhyaṃ vīrudhāṃ babhūva | madhumatparṇaṃ madhumatpuṣpamāsāṃ madhoḥ sambhaktā amṛtasya bhakṣo ghṛtamannaṃ duhratāṃ gopurogavam ||12||

In Atharvaveda (8.7.12) we find plant parts as follows

1. Mūlam (मूलं)–Root
2. Agrabhag (अग्रम)–Shoot apex or shoot tip
3. Vīrudha (वीरुध)–creeping horizontal part
4. Madhyabhag (मध्यं)–Stem or trunk
5. Parṇa (पर्णं)–Leaf or leaves
6. Pushpam (पुष्पम्)–Flowers

All these parts are Amṛtasya–Sweet in content

The main trunk part of the tree is called Prakand or skanda (stem) from where branches spread out. The trees having a very strong stem/ trunk are termed as vanaspati or vaanaspati. A Lata/valli/vratati is one that cannot stand upright on its own.

Morphological characteristics

Root Types

Morphological features were well identified in Indian treatises.

• the number of leaflets in a compound leaf (e.g. Saptaparṇa (सप्तपर्ण) is identified with Alstonia scholaris (the blackboard tree)),
• nature of shape of the leaf (e.g. dirghapatraka (दीर्घपत्रक) is one with long leaves as in sugar-cane, ashvaparnaka refers to Shorea robusta whose leaves resemble the shape of the ear of a horse),
• shape and color of flowers (e.g. vakrapushpa or Sesbania grandifolia with papilionaceous flowers),
• other characteristics like Sataparvika or grasses having hundred (many) joints in its stem, apushpaphalada refers to jackfruit where fruits arise without (apparent) flowers.

Root forms corresponding to modern botanical terms have been described in various Vedic and later Sanskrit texts.

• Sthūlamūla–Tap root - thick and fleshy single root with secondary roots, e.g.: all dicotyledon species (Fig. 1 a)
• Bahumūli–Adventitious roots - many roots originating from one point, e.g.: all grass species (Fig. 1 b)
• Jaṭamūla–Fasciculate roots, e.g.: Dahlia pinnata Cav. (Fig. 1 c)
• Sthūlamūla–Modified roots - fusiform roots, e.g.: Raphanus sativus Linn. (radish) (Fig. 1 d)

Leaf Types

Similarly leaf terms corresponding to modern classification are found in Indian texts.

• Ēkapatra–Simple leaf (Fig. 2 a)
• Bahupatra–Compound leaf (Fig. 2 b)
• Savrinta Parṇa –Petiolate leaf (Fig. 2 c)
• Avrintaka Parṇa–Sessile leaf (Fig. 2 d)
• Aśvaparṇi–Horse ear shaped leaf, e.g.: Shorea robusta Roth (Fig. 2 e)
• Mūṣikaparṇi–Mouse shaped leaf, e.g.: Salvinia molesta D. Mitch. (Fig. 2 f)

Physiological characteristics

Plant physiology is the study of the vital processes of plant life. It deals with the functioning of plants. Plant physiology studies the ways in which plants absorb minerals and water, grow and develop, flower and bear fruit. It also deals with mineral nutrition, photosynthesis, respiration, and biosynthesis and the accumulation of substances which together enable plants to grow and reproduce themselves.

• Acharya Sushruta in the context of conception and development of a healthy child mentions the requirements similar to the proper season (Ritu), good soil (Kshetra), water (containing nutrient matter) and vigorous seeds (Bija) together with proper care, help the germination of strong and undiseased sprouts. ऋतुक्षेत्राम्बुबीजानां सामग्र्यादङ्कुरो यथा (Sush. Shari. 2.33)
• Plants are also called Padapa because they take in the minerals and nutrients from the roots (drinking the rasa through roots)
• Rigveda (1.4.2) and Svetashvatara Upanisad mention that the sun is the source of energy and plants utilize the solar radiation for supporting their life.

Vrkshayurveda

Vrkshayurveda which literally means 'the science of plant life' is known to have existed in ancient India. Parasara's treatise on Vrkshayurveda, divided into six kandas, and further into sub-chapters, covers many basic aspects of Botany. The text gives an exposition as to how the first living cell came into existence and traces the origin of life from water. It gives a classification of lands in the approach of Sushruta and Charaka samhitas. It provides rare and valuable information as to the distribution of forests in ancient India.

Parts of the plant (4.3) - Patra (Leaf), Pushpa (Flower), Phala (fruit), Mula (Root), Tvak (Bark), Kanda (Stem), Sara (Heartwood), Swarasa (Sap), Niryasa (Exudation), Sneha (Oleaginous matter), Kantaka (Prickle), Bija (Seed), Praroha (Seedling), are the different parts of a plant.

Parts of a Leaf (4.10) - Patrapakshan (Leaf blade or lamina), Vrntam (Petiole), Patrasira (Veins), Rasakosha (Cells), Maarhi (Rachis), Vistaara (Tendril), Pattika (Leaf Sheath) are the different parts of a leaf. Leaves take in air, heat, and colorific principles (4.8)

Parts of a flower (5.6) - Vallari (Inflorescence), Vrnta (Pedicel), Jalaka (Calyx), Dala (Corolla), Kesara (Stamens), Paraga (Pollen), Kinjalka (Anther), Parimala (Fragrance), Maranda (Nectar), Bijadhara (Ovary), Varataka (Style), Sthalaka (Thalamus). Floral characteristics of some families are also described.

Similarly we find a description of various kinds of fruits, their shapes, characteristics and the nature of their juices in this text.

Growth Habitats

The Oshadhi Sukta of Atharvaveda classifies the plant world into seven types:

प्रस्तृणती स्तम्बिनीरेकशुङ्गाः प्रतन्वतीरोषधीरा वदामि । अंशुमतीः कण्डिनीर्या विशाखा ह्वयामि ते वीरुधो वैश्वदेवीरुग्राः पुरुषजीवनीः ॥४॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.4) prastṛṇatī stambinīrekaśuṅgāḥ pratanvatīroṣadhīrā vadāmi | aṃśumatīḥ kaṇḍinīryā viśākhā hvayāmi te vīrudho vaiśvadevīrugrāḥ puruṣajīvanīḥ ||4||

It presents an account of nine types of growth habits of plants. These are mentioned here below:

1. Prastr̥ṇatī– Short plants, spreading in all directions.
2. Sthambinī – Plants with moderate height and profusely branching, bushy
3. Ēkaśṛnga – Plants with single sheath or monopodial branches
4. Pratanvatī – Creeping or prostrate plants.
5. Ōṣadhī – Medicinal annual herb.
6. Aśumatī– Plants with many stalks.
7. Kaśiḍinī– Plants having articulated stem, or knotty joints.
8. Viśhākhā – Plants with branches spreading in all directions.
9. Manjarī – Leaves or flowers in clusters.

Manusmriti classifies all immovable creatures which grow from seeds as udbhijjāḥ and they are of two kinds - some shoot from the seeds, while others develop from stem cuttings planted in soil. Udbhijjāḥ are of eight kinds based on their growth patterns as follows

उद्भिज्जाः स्थावराः सर्वे बीजकाण्डप्ररोहिणः । ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ता बहुपुष्पफलोपगाः ।। १.४६ ।।

अपुष्पाः फलवन्तो ये ते वनस्पतयः स्मृताः । पुष्पिणः फलिनश्चैव वृक्षास्तूभयतः स्मृताः ।। १.४७ ।।

गुच्छगुल्मं तु विविधं तथैव तृणजातयः । बीजकाण्डरुहाण्येव प्रताना वल्ल्य एव च ।।१.४८।। (Manu. Smrt. 1.46-48)

udbhijjāḥ sthāvarāḥ sarve bījakāṇḍaprarohiṇaḥ | oṣadhyaḥ phalapākāntā bahupuṣpaphalopagāḥ || 1.46 |

apuṣpāḥ phalavanto ye te vanaspatayaḥ smṛtāḥ | puṣpiṇaḥ phalinaścaiva vṛkṣāstūbhayataḥ smṛtāḥ || 1.47 ||

gucchagulmaṃ tu vividhaṃ tathaiva tṛṇajātayaḥ | bījakāṇḍaruhāṇyeva pratānā vallya eva ca ||1.48|| (Manu. Smrt. 1.46-48)

Udbhijjāḥ are categorized as

1. oṣadhi (herb)
2. vanaspati (tree)
3. vṛkṣaḥ (trees)
4. guccha (a bunch of many creepers originating from the same root)
5. gulma (plants in which many branches of stem develop just from the top of the root)
6. tṛṇa (grasses)
7. pratānā (plants with tendrils)
8. valli (creepers twinning around a tree)

Classification of Plants

Table 2: Classification of Plants in Indian Treatises

Text	Reference	Classification	Based on
Rigveda Oshadhi sukta (10.97)	याः फलिनीर्या अफला अपुष्पा याश्च पुष्पिणीः । बृहस्पतिप्रसूतास्ता नो मुञ्चन्त्वंहसः ॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.97.15) yāḥ phalinīr yā aphalā apuṣpā yāś ca puṣpiṇīḥ | bṛhaspatiprasūtās tā no muñcantv aṃhasaḥ	phalinī - bearing fruits aphalā - not bearing fruits apuṣpā - non-flowering puṣpiṇīḥ - flowering plants All these progeny of Brhaspati, energized by the physician, relieve us from suffering.	flowering and fruiting nature
Atharvaveda Oshadhi sukta (8.7.27)	पुष्पवतीः प्रसूमतीः फलिनीरफला उत । puṣpavatīḥ prasūmatīḥ phalinīraphalā uta | (Atha. Veda. 8.7.27)	puṣpavatī - bearing flowers prasūmatī - bearing flowers phalinī - bearing fruits aphalā - not bearing fruits	flowering and fruiting nature
Chandogya Upanishad	तेषां खल्वेषां भूतानां त्रीण्येव बीजानि भवन्त्याण्डजं जीवजमुद्भिज्जमिति ॥ १ ॥ (Chan. Upan. 6.3.1)	Aṇḍa-ja – organism born from the egg (egg-born) Jīva-ja – organism born alive Udbhij-ja – sprouting/originating from the ground (germinating or germination)	fundamental classification based on place of origin of the organism;
Shrimad Bhagavatam	वनस्पत्योषधिलता त्वक्सारा वीरुधो द्रुमाः । उत्स्रोतसस्तमःप्राया अन्तःस्पर्शा विशेषिणः ॥ १९ ॥ vanaspatyoṣadhilatā tvaksārā vīrudho drumāḥ | utsrotasastamaḥprāyā antaḥsparśā viśeṣiṇaḥ ॥ 19 (Bhag. Pura. 3.10.19)	vanaspati (tree) oṣadhi (herb) latā (that grow with support) tvaksārā (pipe-plants) vīrudha (creepers without support) drumāḥ (trees)	based on morphological characteristics as explained in Table 1
Kautilya's Arthashastra	List of plant groups सार-दारु-वर्गः ।। ०२.१७.०४ ।। वेणु-वर्गः ।। ०२.१७.०५ ।। वल्ली-वर्गः ।। ०२.१७.०६ ।। वल्क-वर्गः ।। ०२.१७.०७ ।। रज्जु-भाण्डं ।। ०२.१७.०८ ।। पत्त्रं ।। ०२.१७.०९ ।। पुष्पं ।। ०२.१७.१० ।। औषध-वर्गः ।। ०२.१७.११ ।। विष-वर्गः ।। ०२.१७.१२ ।।	sáradáruvarga (timber yielding trees) Venu-varga (group of reeds or bamboos) Valli varga ( group of creepers) Valka varga (group of fibre-yielding plants) rajjubhánda varga (group of plants constituting raw materials for ropes) Patra varga (plant leaves used for writing or as utensils) Pushpavarga (for dyes) Oushadha varga (medicinal plants) Vishavarga (poison yielding plants)	based on economic uses
Vayu Purana	वृक्षा गुल्मलतावल्लीवीरुधस्तृणजातयः ।।१५०।। मूलैः फलैश्च रोहिण्यो गृह्णन् पुष्पैश्च जायते। (Vayu. 8.150)	Vrksha Gulma Lata Valli Virudha Trna	based on their growth habit

Charaka Samhita

Acharya Charaka alludes to plant classification and identification of plant parts in the context of preparing drugs. According to Sutrasthana (1.72) there are four types of plants

फलैर्वनस्पतिः पुष्पैर्वानस्पत्यः फलैरपि| ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ताः प्रतानैर्वीरुधः स्मृताः||७२|| phalairvanaspatiḥ puṣpairvānaspatyaḥ phalairapi| oṣadhyaḥ phalapākāntāḥ pratānairvīrudhaḥ smṛtāḥ||72|| (Char. Samh. 1.72)

Based in the fruiting and flowering nature of the plant they are of four types

1. फलैर्वनस्पतिः - plants which bear fruit without visible flowers are known as vanaspati (Gymno-spermia).
2. पुष्पैर्वानस्पत्यः - plants bearing both flowers and fruits are known as vanaspatya (angio-spermia).
3. ओषध्यः - The plants which die out after flowering are known as aushadhi (annuals).
4. वीरुधः - The plants which creep or twine are known as virudha (creepers).

In Sutrasthana (1.74) plant parts used for the preparation of drugs are mentioned.

मूलत्वक्सारनिर्यासनाल(ड)स्वरसपल्लवाः| क्षाराः क्षीरं फलं पुष्पं भस्म तैलानि कण्टकाः||७३||

पत्राणि शुङ्गाः कन्दाश्च प्ररोहाश्चौद्भिदो गणः|७४| mūlatvaksāraniryāsanāla(ḍa)svarasapallavāḥ| kṣārāḥ kṣīraṃ phalaṃ puṣpaṃ bhasma tailāni kaṇṭakāḥ||73||

patrāṇi śuṅgāḥ kandāśca prarohāścaudbhido gaṇaḥ|74| (Char. Samh. 1.73-74)

The roots, bark, pith, exudation, stalk, juice, sprouts, alkalis, latex, fruits, flowers, ash, oil, thorns, leaves, buds, bulbs and off-shoots of the plants are used as drugs.

In Sutrasthana (27.4) Acharya Charaka gives a classification of plants based on their food value.

1. शमीधान्यवर्गः (class of pulses) - Green-gram (mudga), Horse-gram (Dolichos biflorus) etc., belong to this class and they are of twelve kinds.
2. शूकधान्यवर्गः (class of corns) - rice, wheat, barley etc., belong to this class.
3. शाकवर्गः (vegetables) - 18 vegetables
4. फलवर्गः (fruits) - various types of fruits
5. हरितवर्गः (green herbs) - ginger/adraka (Zingiber officinale), lemon/ jambira (Citrus limon), Coriander/dhanyaka (Coriandrum sativum are among this class
6. इक्षुवर्गः (sugarcane and its products) - sugarcane juice and derived products such as guda or jaggery belong this class.
7. Oils yielding plants such as sesame, castor, rapeseed oil etc., and other oils used in cooking.

Plants in Indian Alchemy

An important aspect of the Indian alchemical practice relates to the use of a number of plants in different operations of alchemical and iatrochemical nature. The plants are even referred to as divyausadhi (divine medicinal plants). Generally their roots, leaves or seeds are used in digestion processes. Sometimes oils or exudates of certain plants are also employed. The Indian rasavadins believed that the minerals and metals would not acquire the desirable iatro-chemical properties unless they were treated or digested with one medicinal plant or the other. Even mercury, extolled as divine, should undergo this process. More than two hundred names of plants are mentioned in different texts on Rasashastra. The following is a brief account of some of the plants with particular reference to their iatro-chemical significance.

• Agasti (Sesbania grandiflord)—purification of manahshila, makshika and vajra
• Amlavetasa (Rumex vesicarius)—to enable mercury acquire grasping properties, purification and fixation of mercury;
• Ankola (Alangium lamarkii)—purification of mercury
• Apamarga (Achyranthes aspera)—fixation of mercury, calcination of gold and transmutation of mercury into gold
• Asuri (Sinapis ramosa) - purification of mercury;
• Bhrnga (Wedelia calendulacea)—purification of sulphur, realgar, sulphate of iron and collyrium, ‘killing’ of mercury and iron;
• Brhati (Solanum indicum)— ‘killing’, restraining and calcining of mercury and ‘killing’ of iron;
• Cinca (tamarind)—fixation of mercury, ‘killing’ of tin, lead and iron;
• Citraka (Plumbago zeylanica)— restraining, ‘swooning’, etc., of mercury and also ‘killing’ of iron; Devadali (Andropogan serratus)—for taking essence of metals and ratnas, incineration of mercury, etc.;
• Dattura (Dhattura fastuosa)—purification and incineration of mercury, ‘killing’ of copper and
• transmutation of silver into gold;
• Eranda (Ricinus communis)—transmutation of metals, killing of iron and fixation of mercury; Haridra (turmeric) — purification of lead and mercury;
• Kadali (Musa sapientum)—purification of rasas and uparasas;
• Kanya kumari (Aloe indica)—‘killing’, ‘swooning’, etc., of mercury, iron and copper, and transmutation processes;
• Kulattha (Dolichos uniflorus)—extraction of the essence of orpiment, ‘killing’ of makshika and purification of mercury and diamond;
• Musali (Curculigo orchioides) - ‘killing’, calcining and restraining of mercury;
• Nimba (Citrus acida) transmutation processes, fixation of mercury, etc.,
• Nisacara (soma, Sarcostemma brevistigma)—imparting to mercury the efficacy of invisible movement, fixation and purification of mercury;
• Sigru (Moringa pterygosperma) - purification of mercury, rasas and uparasas;
• Snuhi (Euphorbia neriifolia) ‘killing’ of gold, silver and mercury; purification of lead, copper and sulphur, and transmutation processes;
• Triphala (the three myrobalans) - purification of iron and bitumen ;
• Palasa (Butea frondosa)—transmutation of metals, purification of mercury, ‘killing’ of mercury, tin and iron;
• Vishnukranta (Clitoria ternatea)—fixation of mercury and transmutation process.