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Line 42: − + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − Terminology+ + + + + + + + + + + + + + − Vrksha+ − + − Oushadhi+ + + + + + + − A very major role in the protection of environment has been brought out by reverence to trees, plants and medicinal herbs which have evolved even before human beings existed. In Rigveda, 10th Mandala Sukta 97<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AF%E0%A5%AD Manda 10 Sukta 97])</ref> the trees are hailed as the divine mothers<ref name=":8">Majumdar, G. P. (1927). ''VANASPATI: PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE AS IN INDIAN TREATISES AND TRADITIONS''. The University of Calcutta. (pp.151)</ref>+ Line 51:
Line 92: − + − − yāḥ phalinīr yā aphalā apuṣpā yāś ca puṣpiṇīḥ | bṛhaspatiprasūtās tā no muñcantv aṃhasaḥ ||</blockquote>Let those (herbs) which bear fruit or are fruitless, let those which are flowering or non-flowering - all these progeny of Brhaspati, energized by the physician relieve us from suffering.<ref>Rigveda Samhita with Sayanacharya Bhashya, Vol 4. Poona: Vaidik Samshodhan Mandal (pp. 656)</ref> Line 139:
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Line 223: − − मधुमन् मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन् मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव । मधुमत्पर्णं मधुमत्पुष्पमासां मधोः सम्भक्ता अमृतस्य भक्षो घृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुरोगवम् ॥१२॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.12)<ref name=":7" /> + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + − + − + − + + + + + + + − |+ − |+ − + + + + + − + − + + Line 220:
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adding content
In the Indian Knowledge Systems, though no single work devoted to botany is known, the knowledge of botany among Indians is well known from Vedas, works on Ayurveda, Krshishastra, Arthashastra and the lexicons. Terms like [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and Vanaspati vidya tell us that knowledge of botany flourished in the past and its principles and findings were the foundations to applied sciences such as [[Sasya Veda (सस्यवेदः)|agriculture]], and [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|ayurveda]]. There are many legends which indicate that ancient Indians had several beliefs associated with trees. Plant life was regarded sacred and worshipped. For instance,
In the Indian Knowledge Systems, though no single work devoted to botany is known, the knowledge of botany among Indians is well known from Vedas, works on Ayurveda, Krshishastra, Arthashastra and the lexicons. Terms like [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and Vanaspati vidya tell us that knowledge of botany flourished in the past and its principles and findings were the foundations to applied sciences such as [[Sasya Veda (सस्यवेदः)|agriculture]], and [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|ayurveda]]. There are many legends which indicate that ancient Indians had several beliefs associated with trees. Plant life was regarded sacred and worshipped. For instance,
# Vedas - [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] of [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]], [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] describe plant life extensively.
# Vedas - [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] of [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]], [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] describe plant life extensively. The most celebrated plant in the Vedas is the Soma highly regarded for its elixir in Somayajna. Its botanical identity however, has not been decided till date.<ref name=":5" />
# Dharmasutras - Gobhilagrihya-sutra mentions that Asvattha brings danger of fire to one’s residence and that Udumbara leads to a series of optical diseases.
# Dharmasutras - Gobhilagrihya-sutra mentions that Asvattha brings danger of fire to one’s residence and that Udumbara leads to a series of optical diseases.
# Puranas - Agnipurana, Matsyapurana,
# Puranas - Agnipurana, Matsyapurana,
==Etymology==
==Etymology==
Shabdakalpadruma<ref name=":0">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7</ref> mentions that the root word for वृक्षः (Vrksha) is व्रश्च used in the sense of छेदने, to cut. Amarakosha<ref name=":0" /> gives a few synonyms of trees depicting their characteristics.<blockquote>वृक्षो महीरुहः शाखी विटपी पादपस्तरुः । अनोकहः कुटः शालः पलाशी द्रुद्रुमागमाः ॥ vṛkṣo mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapastaruḥ | anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ palāśī drudrumāgamāḥ || (Amara. 2.4.5)</blockquote>
Shabdakalpadruma<ref name=":0">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7</ref> mentions that the root word for वृक्षः (Vrksha) is व्रश्च used in the sense of छेदने, to cut. Amarakosha<ref name=":0" /> gives a few synonyms of trees depicting their characteristics.<blockquote>वृक्षो महीरुहः शाखी विटपी पादपस्तरुः । अनोकहः कुटः शालः पलाशी द्रुद्रुमागमाः ॥ vṛkṣo mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapastaruḥ | anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ palāśī drudrumāgamāḥ || (Amara. 2.4.5)
अगच्छः १४ विष्टरः १५ महीरुट् १६ कुचिः १७ स्थिरः १८ कारस्करः १९ नगः २० अगः २१ कुटारः २२ । इति शब्दरत्नावली ॥
agacchaḥ 14 viṣṭaraḥ 15 mahīruṭ 16 kuciḥ 17 sthiraḥ 18 kāraskaraḥ 19 nagaḥ 20 agaḥ 21 kuṭāraḥ 22 | iti śabdaratnāvalī ||
विटपः २३ कुजः २४ वनस्पतिः २५ अद्रिः २६ शिखरी २७ कुठः २८ । इति जटाधरः ॥ कुञ्जः २९ क्षितिरुहः ३० अङ्घ्रिपः ३१ भूरुहः ३२ भूजः ३३ महीजः ३४ धरणीरुह ३५ क्षितिजः ३६ शालः ३७ । इति राजनिर्घण्टः ॥<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%83&page=kosha</ref>
viṭapaḥ 23 kujaḥ 24 vanaspatiḥ 25 adriḥ 26 śikharī 27 kuṭhaḥ 28 | iti jaṭādharaḥ || kuñjaḥ 29 kṣitiruhaḥ 30 aṅghripaḥ 31 bhūruhaḥ 32 bhūjaḥ 33 mahījaḥ 34 dharaṇīruha 35 kṣitijaḥ 36 śālaḥ 37 | iti rājanirghaṇṭaḥ ||</blockquote>They are vrksha, mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapa, taruḥ, anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ drudruma and palāśī according to Amarakosha; agacchaḥ, viṣṭaraḥ, mahīruṭ, kuciḥ, sthiraḥ, kāraskaraḥ, nagaḥ, agaḥ, kuṭāraḥa as per Shabdaratnavali and other terms are synonyms for trees. A few term and their meanings are explained below.
*महीरुह (मह्यां रोहति जायत इति) - that which gets planted and grows on Earth
*महीरुह (मह्यां रोहति जायत इति) - that which gets planted and grows on Earth
*शाखिन् (शाखाऽस्त्यस्य।) - that which is branching, ramifying
*शाखिन् (शाखाऽस्त्यस्य।) - that which is branching, ramifying
*पलाशी (पलाशं विद्यतेऽस्य)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D</ref> which has leaves
*पलाशी (पलाशं विद्यतेऽस्य)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D</ref> which has leaves
*अगमः (न गच्छतीति)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE</ref> that which doesn’t move
*अगमः (न गच्छतीति)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE</ref> that which doesn’t move
Similar scientific basis was adopted in naming the different varieties of plants based on various factors. Plants were named according to special association with deities (e.g. Datura is called Sivasekhara as the flower is associated with Siva), their medicinal nature (e.g. Dadrughna or Cassia fistula is that which cures ring-worm), their domestic utility (e.g. karpasa (cotton) that out of which clothes are woven), special characteristics (e.g., phenilaṃ or ''Sapindus emarginatus'' from the Sapindaceae (Soapberry) family have seeds that lather or foam with water), special morphological features such as the number of leaflets in a compound leaf (e.g. Saptaparṇa (सप्तपर्ण) is identified with ''Alstonia scholaris'' (the blackboard tree)), nature of shape of the leaf (e.g. dirghapatraka (दीर्घपत्रक) is one with long leaves as in sugar-cane, ashvaparnaka refers to Shorea robusta whose leaves resemble the shape of the ear of a horse), shape and color of flowers (e.g. vakrapushpa or Sesbania grandifolia with papilionaceous flowers), and other characteristics like Sataparvika or grasses having hundred (many) joints in its stem, apushpaphalada refers to jackfruit where fruits arise without (apparent) flowers. Thus naming of plants was primarily for its identification.<ref name=":8" />
Similar scientific basis was adopted in naming the different varieties of plants based on various factors. Plants were named according to special association with deities (e.g. Datura is called Sivasekhara as the flower is associated with Siva), their medicinal nature (e.g. Dadrughna or Cassia fistula is that which cures ring-worm), their domestic utility (e.g. karpasa (cotton) that out of which clothes are woven), special characteristics (e.g., phenilaṃ or ''Sapindus emarginatus'' from the Sapindaceae (Soapberry) family have seeds that lather or foam with water), special morphological features such as the number of leaflets in a compound leaf (e.g. Saptaparṇa (सप्तपर्ण) is identified with ''Alstonia scholaris'' (the blackboard tree)), nature of shape of the leaf (e.g. dirghapatraka (दीर्घपत्रक) is one with long leaves as in sugar-cane, ashvaparnaka refers to Shorea robusta whose leaves resemble the shape of the ear of a horse), shape and color of flowers (e.g. vakrapushpa or Sesbania grandifolia with papilionaceous flowers), and other characteristics like Sataparvika or grasses having hundred (many) joints in its stem, apushpaphalada refers to jackfruit where fruits arise without (apparent) flowers. Thus naming of plants primarily involved its identification characteristic.<ref name=":8" />
{| class="wikitable"
|+Table 1: The terms used for plants in Shrimad Bhagavatam
वनस्पत्योषधिलता त्वक्सारो वीरुधो द्रुमाः ॥
!Sanskrit Name
!English Term
!Derivation/Explanation from Shabdakalpadhruma and Vachaspatyam and Koshas
|-
|वृक्षः (vṛkṣaḥ)
|Tree which bears both fruits and flowers
|Derived from the root व्रश्च used in the sense of छेदने or to cut, the one that gets cut
|-
|वनस्पतिः (vanaspatiḥ)
|It means 'the lord over forest.' A tree or forest in general
|विना पुष्पं फलिद्रुमः । अपुष्पाः फलवन्तो ये ते वनस्पतयः स्मृताः ॥ वृक्षमात्रम् । इति मेदिनी।<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83+</ref><nowiki> vinā puṣpaṃ phalidrumaḥ | apuṣpāḥ phalavanto ye te vanaspatayaḥ smṛtāḥ || vṛkṣamātram | iti medinī |</nowiki>
Vanaspatis or trees bear fruit without an apparent flowering stage.
|-
|द्रुमाः (drumāḥ)
|A tree
|ये पुष्पैः फलन्ति ते द्रुमाः ।<ref name=":9">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0</ref><nowiki> ye puṣpaiḥ phalanti te drumāḥ |</nowiki>
A tree that bears fruits through flowers is termed drumāḥ.
|-
|ओषधयः (oṣadhayaḥ)
|It is a plant or medicinal herb that lasts for one year (annual plants)
|ओषधयः फलपाकान्ताः ।<ref name=":9" /><nowiki> oṣadhayaḥ phalapākāntāḥ | </nowiki>
one that bears abundant flowers and fruits, and withers after the fruiting phase is termed oṣadhi
|-
|लता/वल्ली
वीरुधः (latā/vallī
vīrudhaḥ)
|Creepers
|लता आरोहणापेक्षाः ।<ref name=":9" /><nowiki> latā ārohaṇāpekṣāḥ |</nowiki>
Lata is a creeper tending to spread and climb up (with support) शाखादिरहिता गुडूच्यादिः । and is devoid of branches e.g., Guduchi and others; काठिन्येन आरोहणानपेक्षा वीरुधः । Creepers without a tendency to climb, and having thorns are called vīrudha (spreading on the ground).
|-
|त्वक्सार (tvaksāraḥ)
|Pipe plants
|त्वक्सारो वेण्वादयः ।<ref name=":9" /><nowiki> tvaksāro veṇvādayaḥ | They include the pipe-plants such as bamboo and others</nowiki>
|}
== Plants in Vedic Literature ==
== Plants in Vedic Literature ==
=== Reverence For Plants ===
=== Reverence For Plants ===
Reverence to trees, plants and medicinal herbs which have evolved even before human beings existed in India since Vedic times. In Rigveda, 10th Mandala Sukta 97<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AF%E0%A5%AD Manda 10 Sukta 97])</ref> the trees are hailed as the divine mothers<ref name=":8">Majumdar, G. P. (1927). ''VANASPATI: PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE AS IN INDIAN TREATISES AND TRADITIONS''. The University of Calcutta. (pp.151)</ref>
* शतं वो अम्ब धामानि सहस्रमुत वो रुहः । अधा शतक्रत्वो यूयमिमं मे अगदं कृत ॥२॥ O mother (herb), hundreds are the places where you arise and work, thousands your varieties and extensions, and hundreds your gifts and efficacies. Make this life free from affliction and disease.
* शतं वो अम्ब धामानि सहस्रमुत वो रुहः । अधा शतक्रत्वो यूयमिमं मे अगदं कृत ॥२॥ O mother (herb), hundreds are the places where you arise and work, thousands your varieties and extensions, and hundreds your gifts and efficacies. Make this life free from affliction and disease.
=== Rigveda ===
=== Rigveda ===
The [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]] has frequent references to the use of the plough, the sowing of seeds, the cutting of corn with the sickle, the threshing and winnowing of the corn, the practice of channel irrigation and the like. Agricultural pursuits definitely made further progress as is evidenced by the use of larger and heavier plough, mention of several types of agricultural produce such as wheat, beans, corn, sesamum, extraction of oil from sesamum, relationship between seasons and the harvest, plant diseases and some attempt to deal with them with magical spell.<ref name=":2" /> The terms like Vriksha (trees), Oshadhi (herbs), lata (creepers), gulma (shrub), bheshaja (medicinal plants) occur frequently in the mantras. In this Veda, we find the following classification on the basis of their flowering and fruiting nature in a mantra of the Oshadhi sukta (10.97)<ref>Bhattacharjee, S., & Bhattacharya, M. K. (2007). ''Knowledge of Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology of Plants in some Sanskrit Texts of Ancient India''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref><blockquote>याः फलिनीर्या अफला अपुष्पा याश्च पुष्पिणीः । बृहस्पतिप्रसूतास्ता नो मुञ्चन्त्वंहसः ॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.97.15)
The [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]] has frequent references to the use of the plough, the sowing of seeds, the cutting of corn with the sickle, the threshing and winnowing of the corn, the practice of channel irrigation and the like. Agricultural pursuits definitely made further progress as is evidenced by the use of larger and heavier plough, mention of several types of agricultural produce such as wheat, beans, corn, sesamum, extraction of oil from sesamum, relationship between seasons and the harvest, plant diseases and some attempt to deal with them with magical spell.<ref name=":2" /> The terms like Vriksha (trees), Oshadhi (herbs), lata (creepers), gulma (shrub), bheshaja (medicinal plants) occur frequently in the mantras.
The most celebrated plant that finds frequent mention in the ''Rgveda'' and later ''Samhitas'' is the Soma plant. The Vedic Indians hail ''Soma'' as the Lord of the forest (''vanaraja''). The botanical identity of Soma plant, however, has not been decided till today. The probable candidates are ''Ephedra'' (a Gymnosperm); ''Sarcostemma'' (flowering plant); and mushroom (a fungus).<ref name=":5" />
The most celebrated plant that finds frequent mention in the ''Rgveda'' and later ''Samhitas'' is the Soma plant. The Vedic Indians hail ''Soma'' as the Lord of the forest (''vanaraja''). The botanical identity of Soma plant, however, has not been decided till today. The probable candidates are ''Ephedra'' (a Gymnosperm); ''Sarcostemma'' (flowering plant); and mushroom (a fungus).<ref name=":5" />
यद् उग्रो देव ओषधयो वनस्पतयस् तेन । न ह वा एनम् उग्रो देवो हिनस्ति ।
यद् उग्रो देव ओषधयो वनस्पतयस् तेन । न ह वा एनम् उग्रो देवो हिनस्ति ।
== Plant Characteristics ==
== स्थावराणाम् लक्षणम् ॥ Plant Characteristics ==
Along with reverence, in Indian traditions plants were regarded as life force or prana and not inanimate or lifeless things; they have life even if they are immobile. Like any animate creature, they are sensitive to cold and heat, they feel happiness and sorrow, they drink water from their roots and also fall sick, etc.
Along with reverence, in Indian traditions plants were regarded as life force or prana and not inanimate or lifeless things; they have life even if they are immobile. Like any animate creature, they are sensitive to cold and heat, they feel happiness and sorrow, they drink water from their roots and also fall sick, etc.
Shrimad Bhagavata Purana, points out the general characteristics of plants as follows:
तेषां लक्षणं यथा, “उत्स्रोतसस्तमःप्राया अन्तःस्पर्शा विशेषिणः ॥” इति श्रीभागवतम् ॥
# उत्स्रोतसः - ऊर्द्ध्वं स्रोत आहारसञ्चारो येषां ते । the process of uptake of food from below (from the ground) through upward channels
# तमःप्रायाः - अव्यक्तचैतन्याः । dormancy of consciousness,
# अन्तःस्पर्शाः - स्पर्शमेव जानन्ति नान्यत्तदापि अन्तरेव न बहिः । have an inner feeling
# विशेषिणः - of many varieties due to
In Aitareya Brahmana and Koushitaki Brahamana, vanaspati or plants are termed as "Prana" because they protect mankind by giving prana-shakti or oxygen.<ref name=":6">Mishra, D. K. (2007). ''Vaidik vangmay mein Vanaspati Vijnan ka svarup''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref><ref>Dvivedi, K. D. (2000). ''Vedon men Vijnana: Positive Sciences in the Vedas'' (2nd ed.). Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad.</ref>
In Aitareya Brahmana and Koushitaki Brahamana, vanaspati or plants are termed as "Prana" because they protect mankind by giving prana-shakti or oxygen.<ref name=":6">Mishra, D. K. (2007). ''Vaidik vangmay mein Vanaspati Vijnan ka svarup''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref><ref>Dvivedi, K. D. (2000). ''Vedon men Vijnana: Positive Sciences in the Vedas'' (2nd ed.). Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad.</ref>
प्राणो वनस्पतिः । (Kous. Brah. 12.7)<ref>Koushitaki Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref>
प्राणो वनस्पतिः । (Kous. Brah. 12.7)<ref>Koushitaki Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref>
== Morphology and Plant Classification <ref>Kachare, S. V., & Suryawanshi, S. R. (2010). HISTORY OF PLANT CLASSIFICATION IN ANCIENT INDIAN SCIENCE. ''International Journal of Current Research'', ''8'', 056–059. <nowiki>http://www.journalcra.com</nowiki></ref>==
== Morphological Characteristics <ref>Kachare, S. V., & Suryawanshi, S. R. (2010). HISTORY OF PLANT CLASSIFICATION IN ANCIENT INDIAN SCIENCE. ''International Journal of Current Research'', ''8'', 056–059. <nowiki>http://www.journalcra.com</nowiki></ref>==
Plant classification is based on morphology of plants since Yajurveda.
Plant classification is based on morphology of plants since Yajurveda.
==== Plant Parts ====
==== Plant Parts ====
Taittriya samhita identifies the parts of the plants as given below<blockquote>ओषधीभ्यः स्वाहा मूलेभ्यः स्वाहा तूलेभ्यः स्वाहा काण्डेभ्यः स्वाहा वल्शेभ्यः स्वाहा पुष्पेभ्यः स्वाहा फलेभ्यः स्वाहा गृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अगृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अवपन्नेभ्यः स्वाहा शयानेभ्यः स्वाहा सर्वस्मै स्वाहा ॥ (Taittiriya Samhita 7.3.19)<ref>Taittriya Samhita ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Kanda 7 Prapathaka 3])</ref></blockquote>Meaning: To the plants hail! To the roots hail! To the panicles hail! To the joints hail! To the twigs hail! To the flowers hail! To the fruits hail! To those that are used hail! To those that are not used hail! To those that have fallen off hail! To those that are lying (on the ground) hail! To all hail!<ref name=":8" />
Taittriya samhita identifies the parts of the plants as given below<blockquote>ओषधीभ्यः स्वाहा मूलेभ्यः स्वाहा तूलेभ्यः स्वाहा काण्डेभ्यः स्वाहा वल्शेभ्यः स्वाहा पुष्पेभ्यः स्वाहा फलेभ्यः स्वाहा गृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अगृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अवपन्नेभ्यः स्वाहा शयानेभ्यः स्वाहा सर्वस्मै स्वाहा ॥ (Taittiriya Samhita 7.3.19)<ref>Taittriya Samhita ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Kanda 7 Prapathaka 3])</ref></blockquote>Meaning: To the plants hail! To the roots hail! To the panicles hail! To the joints hail! To the twigs hail! To the flowers hail! To the fruits hail! To those that are used hail! To those that are not used hail! To those that have fallen off hail! To those that are lying (on the ground) hail! To all hail!<ref name=":8" /><blockquote>मधुमन् मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन् मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव । मधुमत्पर्णं मधुमत्पुष्पमासां मधोः सम्भक्ता अमृतस्य भक्षो घृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुरोगवम् ॥१२॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.12)<ref name=":7" /></blockquote>In Atharvaveda (8.7.12) we find plant parts as follows<ref name=":3" />
# Mūlam (मूलं)–Root
# Agrabhag (अग्रम)–Shoot apex or shoot tip
# Vīrudha (वीरुध)–creeping horizontal part
# Madhyabhag (मध्यं)–Stem or trunk
# Parṇa (पर्णं)–Leaf or leaves
# Pushpam (पुष्पम्)–Flowers
All these parts are Amṛtasya–Sweet in content
==== Growth Habitats ====
==== Growth Habitats ====
# Viśhākhā – Plants with branches spreading in all directions.
# Viśhākhā – Plants with branches spreading in all directions.
# Manjarī – Leaves or flowers in clusters.
# Manjarī – Leaves or flowers in clusters.
{| class="wikitable"
{| class="wikitable"
|+Table 2: Classification of Plants in Indian Treatises
!
!
!Reference
!Reference
!Classification
!Classification
!Based on
!Based on
|-
|Rigveda Oshadhi sukta (10.97)
|याः फलिनीर्या अफला अपुष्पा याश्च पुष्पिणीः । बृहस्पतिप्रसूतास्ता नो मुञ्चन्त्वंहसः ॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.97.15)
yāḥ phalinīr yā aphalā apuṣpā yāś ca puṣpiṇīḥ | bṛhaspatiprasūtās tā no muñcantv aṃhasaḥ ||
|
# phalinī - bearing fruits
# aphalā - not bearing fruits
# apuṣpā - non-flowering
# puṣpiṇīḥ - flowering plants
All these progeny of Brhaspati, energized by the physician, relieve us from suffering.<ref>Rigveda Samhita with Sayanacharya Bhashya, Vol 4. Poona: Vaidik Samshodhan Mandal (pp. 656)</ref>
|flowering and fruiting nature<ref name=":10">Bhattacharjee, S., & Bhattacharya, M. K. (2007). ''Knowledge of Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology of Plants in some Sanskrit Texts of Ancient India''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref>
|-
|Atharvaveda Oshadhi sukta (8.7.27)
|<nowiki>पुष्पवतीः प्रसूमतीः फलिनीरफला उत । puṣpavatīḥ prasūmatīḥ phalinīraphalā uta | (Atha. Veda. 8.7.27) </nowiki><ref name=":7" />
|
# puṣpavatī - bearing flowers
# prasūmatī -
# phalinī - bearing fruits
# aphalā - not bearing fruits
|flowering and fruiting nature<ref name=":10" />
|-
|-
|Chandogya Upanishad
|Chandogya Upanishad
|6-3-1
|तेषां खल्वेषां भूतानां त्रीण्येव बीजानि भवन्त्याण्डजं जीवजमुद्भिज्जमिति ॥ १ ॥ (Chan. Upan. 6.3.1)<ref>Chandogya Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9B%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%AC Adhyaya 6 Khanda 3])</ref>
|
|
# Aṇḍa-ja – organism born from the egg (egg-born)
# Aṇḍa-ja – organism born from the egg (egg-born)
# Jīva-ja – organism born alive
# Jīva-ja – organism born alive
# Udbhij-ja – sprouting/originating from the ground (germinating or germination)
# Udbhij-ja – sprouting/originating from the ground (germinating or germination)
|fundamental classification based on place of origin
|fundamental classification based on place of origin of the organism;
|-
|-
|Shrimad Bhagavatam
|वनस्पत्योषधिलता त्वक्सारा वीरुधो द्रुमाः ।
उत्स्रोतसस्तमःप्राया अन्तःस्पर्शा विशेषिणः ॥ १९ ॥ vanaspatyoṣadhilatā tvaksārā vīrudho drumāḥ |
utsrotasastamaḥprāyā antaḥsparśā viśeṣiṇaḥ || 19 || (Bhag. Pura. 3.10.19)<ref>Shrimad Bhagavata Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6 Skanda 3 Adhyaya 10])</ref>
|
|
# vanaspati
# oṣadhi ()
|
# latā (that grow with support)
# tvaksārā (pipe-plants)
# vīrudha (creepers without support)
# drumāḥ (trees)
|based on morphological characteristics as explained in Table 1
|-
|-
|
|Manu
|
|उद्भिज्जाः स्थावराः सर्वे बीजकाण्डप्ररोहिणः ।
ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ता बहुपुष्पफलोपगाः । । १.४६ । । (Manu. Smrt. 1.46-48
|
|
|
|
* Palasa (Butea frondosa)—transmutation of metals, purification of mercury, ‘killing’ of mercury, tin and iron;
* Palasa (Butea frondosa)—transmutation of metals, purification of mercury, ‘killing’ of mercury, tin and iron;
* Vishnukranta (Clitoria ternatea)—fixation of mercury and transmutation process.
* Vishnukranta (Clitoria ternatea)—fixation of mercury and transmutation process.
== References ==
== References ==
[[Category:Natural Sciences]]
[[Category:Natural Sciences]]