Changes

==Introduction==

==Introduction==

Vrksha (tree) is the symbol of life and growth. It stands for eternity and selfless well-being. In[[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four vedas]], many herbs, vines, shrubs and tree species are described. Vajasaneya Samhita advocates reverence and devotion to trees and eatables, grains, medicinal herbs, forests, and vegetation; they are regarded as deities or devatas who are bestowed with the quality of selfless giving.<ref name=":4">Boddupalli, R. S. (2019). Project Report: Plant Biology of Yajurveda. ''Indian Journal of History of Science'', ''54''(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.16943/ijhs/2019/v54i2/49668</nowiki></ref>

Vrksha or tree is the symbol of life and growth. It stands for eternity and selfless well-being. [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The four vedas]], describe many herbs, vines, shrubs and tree species used in [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajnas]]. Vajasaneya Samhita advocates reverence and devotion to trees and grains, medicinal herbs, forests, and vegetation; they are regarded as deities or devatas who are bestowed with the quality of selfless giving.<ref name=":4">Boddupalli, R. S. (2019). Project Report: Plant Biology of Yajurveda. ''Indian Journal of History of Science'', ''54''(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.16943/ijhs/2019/v54i2/49668</nowiki></ref>

Archeological evidence for the prehistoric use of botanical products in the Indian sub-continent, is scanty and scattered and does not allow a chronological history of the uses of plants. The oldest record of such use is from the site of Indus Valley civilization, in which cereals (wheat, barley, rice and ragi), woods and other plant products were used.<ref name=":1">Chowdhury, K. A. 1971. Botany: Prehistoric Period. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Eds.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 371-375.</ref> The Indus Valley people used to live in villages, cities and towns, wore clothes, cultivated crops including wheat, barley, millet, dates, vegetables, melon and other fruits and cotton; worshipped trees, glazed their pottery with the juice of plants and painted them with a large number of plant designs.<ref name=":5">[https://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_tiwar_botany_frameset.htm Ancient Indian Botany and Taxonomy by Lalit Tiwari]</ref>

Archeological evidence for the prehistoric use of botanical products in the Indian sub-continent, is scanty and scattered and does not allow a chronological history of the uses of plants. The oldest record of such use is from the site of Indus Valley civilization, in which cereals (wheat, barley, rice and ragi), woods and other plant products were used.<ref name=":1">Chowdhury, K. A. 1971. Botany: Prehistoric Period. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Eds.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 371-375.</ref> The Indus Valley people used to live in villages, cities and towns, wore clothes, cultivated crops including wheat, barley, millet, dates, vegetables, melon and other fruits and cotton; worshipped trees, glazed their pottery with the juice of plants and painted them with a large number of plant designs.<ref name=":5">[https://www.infinityfoundation.com/mandala/t_es/t_es_tiwar_botany_frameset.htm Ancient Indian Botany and Taxonomy by Lalit Tiwari]</ref>

In the Indian Knowledge Systems, though no single work devoted to botany is known, the knowledge of botany among Indians is well known from Vedas, works on Ayurveda, Krshishastra, Arthashastra and the lexicons. Terms like [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and Vanaspati vidya tell us that knowledge of botany flourished in the past and its principles and findings were the foundations to applied sciences such as [[Sasya Veda (सस्यवेदः)|agriculture]], and [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|ayurveda]].  There are many legends which indicate that ancient Indians had several beliefs associated with trees. Plant life was regarded sacred and worshipped. For instance,   

In the Indian Knowledge Systems, though no single work devoted to botany is known, the knowledge of botany among Indians is well known from Vedas, works on Ayurveda, Krshishastra, Arthashastra and the lexicons. Terms like [[Vrikshayurveda (वृक्षायुर्वेद)|Vrikshayurveda]] and Vanaspati vidya tell us that knowledge of botany flourished in the past and its principles and findings were the foundations to applied sciences such as [[Sasya Veda (सस्यवेदः)|agriculture]], and [[Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः)|ayurveda]].  There are many legends which indicate that ancient Indians had several beliefs associated with trees. Plant life was regarded sacred and worshipped. For instance,   

# Vedas - [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] of [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]], [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]]

# Vedas - [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhitas]], [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]], [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] and [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]] of [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], [[Yajurveda (यजुर्वेदः)|Yajurveda]], [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] describe plant life extensively.

# Dharmasutras - Gobhilagrihya-sutra mentions that Asvattha brings danger of fire to one’s residence and that Udumbara leads to a series of optical diseases.

# Dharmasutras - Gobhilagrihya-sutra mentions that Asvattha brings danger of fire to one’s residence and that Udumbara leads to a series of optical diseases.

# Puranas - Agnipurana, Matsyapurana,  

# Puranas - Agnipurana, Matsyapurana,  

# Ramayana

# Ramayana <ref>Murugesan, A and P. Sudhakar (2013) ''[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325144789_Plant_and_Animal_diversity_in_Valmiki's_Ramayana Plant diversity in the Valmiki Ramayana]'' Chennai: C. P. R. Environmental Education Centre</ref>

# Mahabharata <ref>Mani, N. (2007). ''Panchamved Mahabharat mein Padapa Vichar''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref>

# Mahabharata<ref>Mani, N. (2007). ''Panchamved Mahabharat mein Padapa Vichar''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref>

# Ayurveda -

# Ayurveda - Charaka and Sushruta Samhitas

# Brihatsamhita - speaks of trees like the Asoka and Punnaga which are beneficial to warfare.<ref name=":2">Ghose, A. K. 1971. Botany: The Vedic and Post-Vedic Periods. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Ed.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 375-392.</ref>

# Brihatsamhita - speaks of trees like the Asoka and Punnaga which are beneficial to warfare.<ref name=":2">Ghose, A. K. 1971. Botany: The Vedic and Post-Vedic Periods. In ''A Concise History of Science in India'' (Ed.) D. M. Bose, S. N. Sen and B.V. Subbarayappa. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. Pp. 375-392.</ref>

# Vrkshayurveda - 14 kandas described<ref name=":2" /><ref>A K, S., & Katti, A. (2022). Science of Plant Life - Vrikshayurveda: A Historical Account. ''International Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine'', ''12''(2), 4204–4208. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.47191/ijahm/v12i2.06</nowiki></ref>

# Vrkshayurveda - 14 kandas described<ref name=":2" /><ref>A K, S., & Katti, A. (2022). Science of Plant Life - Vrikshayurveda: A Historical Account. ''International Journal of Ayurvedic and Herbal Medicine'', ''12''(2), 4204–4208. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.47191/ijahm/v12i2.06</nowiki></ref>

*पलाशी (पलाशं विद्यतेऽस्य)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D</ref> which has leaves

*पलाशी (पलाशं विद्यतेऽस्य)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D</ref> which has leaves

*अगमः (न गच्छतीति)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE</ref> that which doesn’t move

*अगमः (न गच्छतीति)<ref>https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?page=kosha&search=%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%AE</ref> that which doesn’t move

Similar scientific basis was adopted in naming the different varieties of plants based on various factors.

Similar scientific basis was adopted in naming the different varieties of plants based on various factors. Plants were named according to special association with deities (e.g. Datura is called Sivasekhara as the flower is associated with Siva), their medicinal nature (e.g. Dadrughna or Cassia fistula is that which cures ring-worm), their domestic utility (e.g. karpasa (cotton) that out of which clothes are woven), special characteristics (e.g., phenilaṃ or ''Sapindus emarginatus'' from the Sapindaceae (Soapberry) family have seeds that lather or foam with water), special morphological features such as the number of leaflets in a compound leaf (e.g. Saptaparṇa (सप्तपर्ण) is identified with ''Alstonia scholaris'' (the blackboard tree)), nature of shape of the leaf (e.g. dirghapatraka (दीर्घपत्रक) is one with long leaves as in sugar-cane, ashvaparnaka refers to Shorea robusta whose leaves resemble the shape of the ear of a horse), shape and color of flowers (e.g. vakrapushpa or Sesbania grandifolia with papilionaceous flowers), and other characteristics like Sataparvika or grasses having hundred (many) joints in its stem, apushpaphalada refers to jackfruit where fruits arise without (apparent) flowers. Thus naming of plants was primarily for its identification.<ref name=":8" />

 

 

 

== Plants in Vedic Literature ==

== Plants in Vedic Literature ==

=== Reverence For Plants ===

=== Reverence For Plants ===

A very major role in the protection of environment has been brought out by reverence to trees, plants and medicinal herbs which have evolved even before human beings existed. In Rigveda, 10th Mandala Sukta 97<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AF%E0%A5%AD Manda 10 Sukta 97])</ref> the trees are hailed as the divine mothers<ref>Majumdar, G. P. (1927). ''VANASPATI: PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE AS IN INDIAN TREATISES AND TRADITIONS''. The University of Calcutta. (pp.151)</ref>

A very major role in the protection of environment has been brought out by reverence to trees, plants and medicinal herbs which have evolved even before human beings existed. In Rigveda, 10th Mandala Sukta 97<ref>Rigveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A6.%E0%A5%AF%E0%A5%AD Manda 10 Sukta 97])</ref> the trees are hailed as the divine mothers<ref name=":8">Majumdar, G. P. (1927). ''VANASPATI: PLANTS AND PLANT-LIFE AS IN INDIAN TREATISES AND TRADITIONS''. The University of Calcutta. (pp.151)</ref>

* शतं वो अम्ब धामानि सहस्रमुत वो रुहः । अधा शतक्रत्वो यूयमिमं मे अगदं कृत ॥२॥ O mother (herb), hundreds are the places where you arise and work, thousands your varieties and extensions, and hundreds your gifts and efficacies. Make this life free from affliction and disease.  

* शतं वो अम्ब धामानि सहस्रमुत वो रुहः । अधा शतक्रत्वो यूयमिमं मे अगदं कृत ॥२॥ O mother (herb), hundreds are the places where you arise and work, thousands your varieties and extensions, and hundreds your gifts and efficacies. Make this life free from affliction and disease.  

* ओषधीरिति मातरस्तद्वो देवीरुप ब्रुवे । सनेयमश्वं गां वास आत्मानं तव पूरुष ॥४॥  

* ओषधीरिति मातरस्तद्वो देवीरुप ब्रुवे । सनेयमश्वं गां वास आत्मानं तव पूरुष ॥४॥ O plant! I hail you, the divine mother (of mankind).

=== Rigveda ===

=== Rigveda ===

The Rgveda has frequent references to the use of the plough, the sowing of seeds, the cutting of corn with the sickle, the threshing and winnowing of the corn, the practice of channel irrigation and the like. Agricultural pursuits definitely made further progress as is evidenced by the use of larger and heavier plough, mention of several types of agricultural produce such as wheat, beans, corn, sesamum, extraction of oil from sesamum, relationship between seasons and the harvest, plant diseases and some attempt to deal with them with magical spell.<ref name=":2" /> In [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]], terms like Vriksha (trees), Oshadhi (herbs), lata (creepers), gulma (shrub), bheshaja (medicinal plants) occur frequently in the mantras. In this Veda, we find the following classification on the basis of their flowering and fruiting nature in a mantra of the Oshadhi sukta (10.97)<ref>Bhattacharjee, S., & Bhattacharya, M. K. (2007). ''Knowledge of Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology of Plants in some Sanskrit Texts of Ancient India''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref><blockquote>याः फलिनीर्या अफला अपुष्पा याश्च पुष्पिणीः । बृहस्पतिप्रसूतास्ता नो मुञ्चन्त्वंहसः ॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.97.15)

The [[Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)|Rigveda]] has frequent references to the use of the plough, the sowing of seeds, the cutting of corn with the sickle, the threshing and winnowing of the corn, the practice of channel irrigation and the like. Agricultural pursuits definitely made further progress as is evidenced by the use of larger and heavier plough, mention of several types of agricultural produce such as wheat, beans, corn, sesamum, extraction of oil from sesamum, relationship between seasons and the harvest, plant diseases and some attempt to deal with them with magical spell.<ref name=":2" /> The terms like Vriksha (trees), Oshadhi (herbs), lata (creepers), gulma (shrub), bheshaja (medicinal plants) occur frequently in the mantras. In this Veda, we find the following classification on the basis of their flowering and fruiting nature in a mantra of the Oshadhi sukta (10.97)<ref>Bhattacharjee, S., & Bhattacharya, M. K. (2007). ''Knowledge of Taxonomy, Anatomy, and Physiology of Plants in some Sanskrit Texts of Ancient India''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref><blockquote>याः फलिनीर्या अफला अपुष्पा याश्च पुष्पिणीः । बृहस्पतिप्रसूतास्ता नो मुञ्चन्त्वंहसः ॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.97.15)

yāḥ phalinīr yā aphalā apuṣpā yāś ca puṣpiṇīḥ | bṛhaspatiprasūtās tā no muñcantv aṃhasaḥ ||</blockquote>Let those (herbs) which bear fruit or are fruitless, let those which are flowering or non-flowering - all these progeny of Brhaspati, energized by the physician relieve us from suffering.<ref>Rigveda Samhita with Sayanacharya Bhashya, Vol 4. Poona: Vaidik Samshodhan Mandal (pp. 656)</ref>

yāḥ phalinīr yā aphalā apuṣpā yāś ca puṣpiṇīḥ | bṛhaspatiprasūtās tā no muñcantv aṃhasaḥ ||</blockquote>Let those (herbs) which bear fruit or are fruitless, let those which are flowering or non-flowering - all these progeny of Brhaspati, energized by the physician relieve us from suffering.<ref>Rigveda Samhita with Sayanacharya Bhashya, Vol 4. Poona: Vaidik Samshodhan Mandal (pp. 656)</ref>

=== Atharvaveda ===

=== Atharvaveda ===

The growing acquaintance with plant life is further reflected in the appreciation of the medicinal properties of plants and in the appearance of a class of Atharvan priests specializing in the herbal treatment of diseases.<ref name=":2" /> In [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] the type, shape and morphology of plants is described making it the earliest recorded authority on plant morphology. Atharvaveda sukta (8.7.12) elaborately describes various plant parts and its medicinal values to remove human ailments, thus throwing light on the fact that plant medicines where highly developed since ancient times.<ref name=":3" />  

The growing acquaintance with plant life is further reflected in the appreciation of the medicinal properties of plants and in the appearance of a class of Atharvan priests specializing in the herbal treatment of diseases.<ref name=":2" /> In [[Atharvaveda (अथर्ववेदः)|Atharvaveda]] the type, shape and morphology of plants is described making it the earliest recorded authority on plant morphology. Atharvaveda sukta (8.7.12) elaborately describes various plant parts and its medicinal values to remove human ailments, thus throwing light on the fact that plant medicines where highly developed since ancient times.<ref name=":3" />

 

== Plants are Living Beings ==

== Plant Characteristics ==

Plants have been regarded as having sensitivity, feelings and the elemental nature of plants are described in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata. In the Bharadvaja Bhrigu Samvada, Maharshi Bharadwaja asks that since trees can neither see nor hear, nor smell, no feel pleasure, nor have a sense of touch, how then are they animate or living and how are they constituted by the five elements or panchabhutas? (Mahabharata Shan. Parv. 184.6-9)<ref>Sastri, R. (2009). [https://archive.org/details/mahabharat05ramauoft/page/4893/mode/1up ''Mahabharata: Vol. 5 Shanti Parva''.] </ref><blockquote>भरद्वाज उवाच।

Along with reverence, in Indian traditions plants were regarded as life force or prana and not inanimate or lifeless things; they have life even if they are immobile. Like any animate creature, they are sensitive to cold and heat, they feel happiness and sorrow, they drink water from their roots and also fall sick, etc.

 

 

 

 

The sensitivity, feelings and elemental nature of plants are described in the Shanti Parva of the Mahabharata. In the Bharadwaja Bhrigu Samvada, Maharshi Bharadwaja asks that since trees can neither see nor hear, nor smell, no feel pleasure, nor have a sense of touch, how then are they animate or living and how are they constituted by the panchabhutas (Mahabharata Shan. Parv. 184.6-9)<ref>Sastri, R. (2009). ''Mahabharata: Vol. 5 Shanti Parva''. <nowiki>https://archive.org/details/mahabharat05ramauoft/page/4893/mode/1up</nowiki></ref>?<blockquote>भरद्वाज उवाच।

पञ्चभिर्यदि भूतैस्तु यक्ताः स्थावरजङ्गमाः। स्थावराणां न दृश्यन्ते शरीरे पञ्च धातवः।। 12-184-6

पञ्चभिर्यदि भूतैस्तु यक्ताः स्थावरजङ्गमाः। स्थावराणां न दृश्यन्ते शरीरे पञ्च धातवः।। 12-184-6

“The wind and the heat inside the tree help it to digest the water that it takes in from its roots. Complete assimilation of the food gives it glossiness and it grows well.”

“The wind and the heat inside the tree help it to digest the water that it takes in from its roots. Complete assimilation of the food gives it glossiness and it grows well.”

=== प्रदूषनिवारकाः ॥ Pollution Preventors ===

== Uses of Plants ==

प्रदूषनिवारकाः ॥ Pollution Preventors

 

Yajuveda mentions that plants prevent pollution and hence are called शमिता (शमनकर्ता)<ref name=":6" />  

Yajuveda mentions that plants prevent pollution and hence are called शमिता (शमनकर्ता)<ref name=":6" />  

वनस्पतिः शमिता देवोऽ अग्निः स्वदन्तु हव्यं मधुना घृतेन ॥ (Shuk. Yaju. 29.35)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 29])</ref>

वनस्पतिः शमिता देवोऽ अग्निः स्वदन्तु हव्यं मधुना घृतेन ॥ (Shuk. Yaju. 29.35)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 29])</ref>

Arogya karaka

॥ Arogya karaka

Kaushitaki Brahmana describes plants as  

Kaushitaki Brahmana describes plants as  

यद् उग्रो देव ओषधयो वनस्पतयस् तेन । न ह वा एनम् उग्रो देवो हिनस्ति ।

यद् उग्रो देव ओषधयो वनस्पतयस् तेन । न ह वा एनम् उग्रो देवो हिनस्ति ।

=== Morphology - <ref>Kachare, S. V., & Suryawanshi, S. R. (2010). HISTORY OF PLANT CLASSIFICATION IN ANCIENT INDIAN SCIENCE. ''International Journal of Current Research'', ''8'', 056–059. <nowiki>http://www.journalcra.com</nowiki></ref><ref name=":3" /> ===

=== प्राणा ॥ Prana or Life force ===

In Aitareya Brahmana and Koushitaki Brahamana, vanaspati or plants are termed as "Prana" because they protect mankind by giving prana-shakti or oxygen.<ref name=":6">Mishra, D. K. (2007). ''Vaidik vangmay mein Vanaspati Vijnan ka svarup''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref><ref>Dvivedi, K. D. (2000). ''Vedon men Vijnana: Positive Sciences in the Vedas'' (2nd ed.). Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad.</ref>

वनस्पतिं यजति प्राणो वै वनस्पतिः प्राणमेव तत्प्रीणाति प्राणं यजमाने दधाति..(Aite. Brah. 2.4)<ref>Aitareya Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A5%A8_(%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE) Panchika 2])</ref>

ओषधीभ्यः स्वाहा मूलेभ्यः स्वाहा तूलेभ्यः स्वाहा काण्डेभ्यः स्वाहा वल्शेभ्यः स्वाहा पुष्पेभ्यः स्वाहा फलेभ्यः स्वाहा गृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अगृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अवपन्नेभ्यः स्वाहा शयानेभ्यः स्वाहा सर्वस्मै स्वाहा ॥ (Taittiriya Samhita 7.3.19)<ref>Taittriya Samhita ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Kanda 7 Prapathaka 3])</ref>

that have fallen off hail! To those that are lying (on the ground) hail! To all hail!]

== Morphology and Plant Classification <ref>Kachare, S. V., & Suryawanshi, S. R. (2010). HISTORY OF PLANT CLASSIFICATION IN ANCIENT INDIAN SCIENCE. ''International Journal of Current Research'', ''8'', 056–059. <nowiki>http://www.journalcra.com</nowiki></ref>==

Plant classification is based on morphology of plants since Yajurveda.

The Oshadhi Sukta of Atharvaveda classifies the plant world into seven types:

Taittriya samhita identifies the parts of the plants as given below<blockquote>ओषधीभ्यः स्वाहा मूलेभ्यः स्वाहा तूलेभ्यः स्वाहा काण्डेभ्यः स्वाहा वल्शेभ्यः स्वाहा पुष्पेभ्यः स्वाहा फलेभ्यः स्वाहा गृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अगृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अवपन्नेभ्यः स्वाहा शयानेभ्यः स्वाहा सर्वस्मै स्वाहा ॥ (Taittiriya Samhita 7.3.19)<ref>Taittriya Samhita ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Kanda 7 Prapathaka 3])</ref></blockquote>Meaning: To the plants hail! To the roots hail! To the panicles hail! To the joints hail! To the twigs hail! To the flowers hail! To the fruits hail! To those that are used hail! To those that are not used hail! To those that have fallen off hail! To those that are lying (on the ground) hail! To all hail!<ref name=":8" />

प्रस्तृणती स्तम्बिनीरेकशुङ्गाः प्रतन्वतीरोषधीरा वदामि । अंशुमतीः कण्डिनीर्या विशाखा ह्वयामि ते वीरुधो वैश्वदेवीरुग्राः पुरुषजीवनीः ॥४॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.4)<ref name=":7">Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Kanda 8 Sukta 7]) Oshadhi Sukta</ref>

The Oshadhi Sukta of Atharvaveda classifies the plant world into seven types:<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>प्रस्तृणती स्तम्बिनीरेकशुङ्गाः प्रतन्वतीरोषधीरा वदामि । अंशुमतीः कण्डिनीर्या विशाखा ह्वयामि ते वीरुधो वैश्वदेवीरुग्राः पुरुषजीवनीः ॥४॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.4)<ref name=":7">Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Kanda 8 Sukta 7]) Oshadhi Sukta</ref></blockquote>It presents an account of nine types of growth habits of plants. These are mentioned here below:

1) those that expand, 2) those that are bushy, 3) those that are single-sheathed, 4) those that creep, 5) those that have many stalks, 6) those that are knotty and 7) those that spread into many branches

# Prastr̥ṇatī– Short plants, spreading in all directions.

# Aśumatī– Plants with many stalks.

# Kaśiḍinī– Plants having articulated stem, or knotty joints.

# Viśhākhā – Plants with branches spreading in all directions.

मधुमन् मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन् मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव । मधुमत्पर्णं मधुमत्पुष्पमासां मधोः सम्भक्ता अमृतस्य भक्षो घृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुरोगवम् ॥१२॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.12)<ref name=":7" />

मधुमन् मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन् मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव । मधुमत्पर्णं मधुमत्पुष्पमासां मधोः सम्भक्ता अमृतस्य भक्षो घृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुरोगवम् ॥१२॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.12)<ref name=":7" />

== Plants in Indian Alchemy ==

== Plants in Indian Alchemy ==

* Nisacara (soma, Sarcostemma brevistigma)—imparting to mercury the efficacy of invisible movement, fixation and purification of mercury;  

* Nisacara (soma, Sarcostemma brevistigma)—imparting to mercury the efficacy of invisible movement, fixation and purification of mercury;  

* Sigru (Moringa pterygosperma) - purification of mercury, rasas and uparasas;  

* Sigru (Moringa pterygosperma) - purification of mercury, rasas and uparasas;  

* Snuhi (Euphorbia neriifolia) ‘killing’ of gold, silver and mercury; purification of lead, copper and

* Snuhi (Euphorbia neriifolia) ‘killing’ of gold, silver and mercury; purification of lead, copper and sulphur, and transmutation processes;

* sulphur, and transmutation processes;  

* Triphala (the three myrobalans) - purification of iron and bitumen ;  

* Triphala (the three myrobalans) - purification of iron and bitumen ;  

* Palasa (Butea frondosa)—transmutation of metals, purification of mercury, ‘killing’ of mercury, tin and iron;

* Palasa (Butea frondosa)—transmutation of metals, purification of mercury, ‘killing’ of mercury, tin and iron;