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'''Vedanta''' ({{IPAc-en|v|ae|d|ɑː|n|t|ə}}; {{IPA-hi|ʋeːd̪aːn̪t̪}}, ''{{IAST|Vedānta}}'') or '''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''' is one of the six orthodox schools of [[Hindu philosophy]]. The term veda means "knowledge" and anta means "end,"  and originally referred to the classical [[Upanishads]], a collection of foundational texts in [[Hinduism]].{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}<ref>Frits Staal (2009), Discovering the Vedas: Origins, Mantras, Rituals, Insights, Penguin Books, ISBN 978-0143099864, page 159, '''Quote:''' The Vedic or Classical Upanishads are sometimes called Vedanta or "end (anta) of the Veda". The term occurs first after the end of the Vedic period, in the Mundaka Upanishad (4th to 3rd centuries BCE?); (...)".</ref>{{refn|group=note|Considered to be the final layer of the Vedic canon}} Vedanta also refers to various philosophical traditions based on [[Prasthanatrayi|the three basic texts of Hindu philosophy]], namely the [[Principal Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}<ref>NV Isaeva (1992), Shankara and Indian Philosophy, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0-7914-1281-7, page 35 with footnote 30</ref><ref>Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex University Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages xxiii-xxiv</ref>
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Vedanta (Samskrit: वेदांतम्) or Uttara Mimamsa is one of the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|six Darshana shastras]] or schools of philosophy that have originated from the spiritual experience of the sages of ancient India. Subsequently, these philosophical concepts were elaborated into systems of thought and explained in terms of reason and logic. {{#evu:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qa6TBN_xxkI&feature=youtu.be
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Vedanta adopted ideas from other schools of Hinduism such as [[Yoga (philosophy)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya]],<ref>Knut Jacobsen (2008), Theory and Practice of Yoga, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120832329, pages 20-21</ref><ref>Francis X Clooney (2000), Ultimate Realities: A Volume in the Comparative Religious Ideas Project, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791447758, pages 96-107</ref> and, over time, became the most prominent of the orthodox schools of Hinduism, influencing the diverse traditions within it.<ref name=hajimenakamura3/><ref name=gavinfloodaith238/> The term Vedanta may also be used to refer to Indian philosophy more generally.{{cn|date=December 2015}} There are at least ten schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} of which [[Advaita Vedanta]], [[Vishishtadvaita]], [[Achintya-Bheda-Abheda]] and [[Dvaita]] are the best known.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}
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One of the living systems of Indian philosophy, the Vedanta, has become widely studied in recent centuries, as to some Western intellectuals it became a solace and a solution to the vexed problems of the world. They consider that it offers the central principles of the universal religion, which, swayed the thought and life of Indians through ages of time. Primarily the word Vedanta stood for [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]; later its scope widened to include all thoughts developed out of the Upanishads<ref name=":0">Satischandra Chatterjee, Dheerendramohan Dutta (1948) An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press.  pp.&nbsp;395, 396</ref>.
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In this article, the term Godhead is used in the same spirit as "Bhagvaan” or "Parabrahman", intrinsic aspect of God analogous to waterness in water.
  
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==Etymology==
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== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
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The name is a morphophonological form of ''Veda-anta'' = "Veda-end" = "the [[Addendum|appendix]] to the Vedic hymns". It is also said that "Vedānta" means "the purpose or goal [end] of the Vedas".{{refn|group=note|Robert E. Hume, Professor Emeritus of History of Religions at the [[Union Theological Seminary in the City of New York|Union Theological Seminary]], wrote in [[Random House]]'s ''The American College Dictionary'' (1966): "It [Vedānta] is concerned with the end of the Vedas, both chronologically and teleologically."}} Vedanta can also be used as a noun to describe one who has mastered all four of the original Vedas.
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Philosophy is the search for an experience of Reality. The subject-matter of Indian philosophy, however, is not the entire Reality. It is more about the true nature of the Self. One of the postulates of Indian philosophy is that the [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]], loosely translated as soul in abrahmic texts, is the core of Self and its intrinsic nature full of [[Sukha and Ananda (सुखानन्दश्च)|Ananda]]. The realization of the true and native nature of the Self is another name for [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]]. Vedanta adopted ideas from other Darshanas such as [[Yoga Darshana (योगदर्शनम्)|Yoga]] and [[Nyaya Darshana (न्यायदर्शनम्)|Nyaya]], and, over time, became the most prominent of the Astika Darshanas, influencing the sampradayas or diverse traditions within it. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita and Bhedabheda are the best known.  
  
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In earlier writings, [[Sanskrit]] 'Vedānta' simply referred to the [[Upanishad]]s, the most important and philosophical of the Vedic texts. However, in the medieval period of Hinduism, the word Vedānta came to mean the school of philosophy that interpreted the Upanishads.
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The Self to be realized is usually confused with the [[Ahamkara (अहंकारम्)|Ahamkara]] or the individual ego that we are aware of. We mistake the ego for the true Self and that is the cause of our suffering. The ignorance of the true nature of the Self, which is free from all impurities, sorrows, etc., is the cause of bondage. This ignorance is called by different names. Nyaya calls it mithya jnana (illusory knowledge). [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] calls it lack of discernment between [[Purusha (पुरुषः)|Purusha]] and [[Prakrti (प्रकृतिः)|Prakrti]]. Advaita siddhanta calls it [[Maya (माया)|Maya]] (illusion). Self-realization is achieved either through self-culture, or as in some forms of Vedanta, through divine grace.<ref name=":2">Nagaraja Rao, P. (1958) ''Introduction to Vedanta.'' Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.</ref>
  
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Vedānta is also called '''Uttara Mīmāṃsā''', or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mīmāṃsā, the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry'. Pūrva Mimamsa, usually simply called [[Mimamsa]], deals with explanations of the ''Karma-kanda'' or rituals part of the Vedic [[mantra]]s (in the [[Samhita]] portion of the Vedas) and [[Brahmana]]s, while Vedanta explicates the ''Jnana-kanda'' or knowledge part of the [[Aranyaka|{{IAST|Āraṇyakas}}]] (the "forest scriptures"), and the [[Upanishads]], composed after about 9th century BCE through the common era.{{sfn|Koller|2013|p=100-106}}
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All the Indian philosophical systems exhibit a twofold unity of outlook. There is first the “spiritual unity” in their outlook. This is brought out clearly by the common philosophical ideal of [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|moksha]], which is a spiritual experience, not an intellectual apprehension or an occult vision or a physical ecstasy. The second is the moral unity in outlook. All the systems, though they give differing accounts of moksha, are at one in holding that it cannot be attained by mere intellectual study.<ref name=":2" />
  
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The Vedanta school has been historically referred to by various names, states Richard King, with early names of the Vedanta school being Upanishadic ones (''Aupanisada''), the doctrine of the end of the Vedas (''Vedanta-vada''), the doctrine of [[Brahman]] (''Brahma-vada''), and named after the doctrine that Brahman is the cause (''Brahma-karana-vada'').{{Sfn|King|1995|p=268 with note 2}}
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As per recent Oxford University publications<ref>Juturi RK. (2020) Advaita Vedanta answer to the hard problem of consciousness: A philosophical review. Yoga Mimamsa 2020;52:84-87</ref>, there are five great unsolved questions in Philosophy which are:
  
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==Three basic texts==
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# Do we have free will (actions guided by us or are predetermined)?
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All sub-schools of the vedanta propound their philosophy by interpreting the [[Prasthanatrayi]], literally, ''three sources'', the three canonical texts of [[Hindu philosophy]], especially of the Vedanta schools. It consists of:<ref>Vepa, Kosla. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Dls3ROqB4iUC&pg=PA112&dq=Prasthanatrayi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=dIPET8agJtHhrAeu-4zfCQ&ved=0CGMQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q=Prasthanatrayi&f=false The Dhaarmik Traditions]. Indic Studies Foundation.</ref>
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# Can we know (knowledge) anything at all (skepticism regarding epistemology)?
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#The [[Upanishads]], known as ''Upadesha prasthana'' (injunctive texts), and the ''Śruti prasthāna'' (the starting point of revelation)
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# Who am “I”?(fundamental nature of human beings)
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#The [[Brahma Sutras]], known as ''Nyaya prasthana'' or ''Yukti prasthana'' (logical text)
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# What is death (not physical death but as a psychological/sentient being)?
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#The ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'', known as ''Sadhana prasthana'' (practical text), and the ''Smriti prasthāna'' (the starting point of remembered tradition)
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# What would “global justice” look like?
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The [[Upanishad]]s consist of twelve or thirteen [[mukhya|major]] texts, with a total of 108 texts. The ''{{IAST|[[Bhagavad Gītā]]}}'' is part of the {{IAST|[[Mahabhārata]]}}. The {{IAST|[[Brahma Sutra|Brahma Sūtra]]s}} (also known as the ''{{IAST|Vedānta Sūtras}}''), systematise the doctrines taught in the Upanishads and the ''{{IAST|Gītā}}''.
 
  
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All major Vedantic teachers, like Shankara, [[Rāmānuja]], and Mādhvāchārya, have composed often extensive commentaries not only on the Upanishads and Brahma Sutras, but also on the ''Gita''. While it is not typically thought of as a purely Vedantic text, with its syncretism of [[Samkhya]], [[Yoga]], and [[Upanishad]]ic thought, the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]'' has played a strong role in Vedantic thought.<ref>{{cite book|last=Pasricha|first=Ashu|title=Encyclopaedia of Eminent Thinkers: The Political Thought of C. Rajagopalachari, Volume 15|year=2008|publisher=Concept Publishing Company|location=New Delhi|isbn=9788180694950|pages=95}}</ref>
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The essential point in the above first four questions is that these questions are directly connected with consciousness.  
  
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==History==
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==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==
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Advaita Vedanta existed prior to [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], but found its most influential expounder in him.<ref>The seven great untenables: Sapta-vidhā anupapatti. By John A Grimes. Introduction, p.7. Motilal Banarsidass 1990</ref> Of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the [[Brahma Sutras]] (400–450 BC{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}) almost nothing is known.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Very little also is known of the period between the Brahma Sutras and Shankara (first half of the 8th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Only two writings of this period have survived: the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=426}}), and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada]] (7th century BC).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}
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The word ''Vedanta'' is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘''Veda’'' and  ‘''Anta’'' meaning वेदानाम्  अन्तः।  or ''<nowiki/>'end of Vedas''' and indeed, many of these texts are found at the end of each of [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|the four Vedas]]. In Shabdakalpadhruma<ref name=":1">See word [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80 Vedanta on Page 4/501]</ref>, Hemachandra mentions Vedanta to be Upanishads.  
  
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===Earliest Vedanta===
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: वेदान्तो नाम उपनिषत्-प्रमाणं तदुपकारीणि शारीरकसूत्रादीनि च । इति परमहंसपरिव्राजकाचार्य्य श्रीसदानन्द-योगीन्द्रविरचितवेदान्तसारः ॥
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{{See also|Vedas|Upanishads|Darsanas}}
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: Vedanta signifies the Upanishads, the means of right knowledge (with respect to Self) and the Sharirika sutras and other (works) helpful in understanding them, as per Vedantasara (text) composed by Sadananda Yogindra Acharya.
  
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According to Balasubramanian, the Vedantic philosophy is as old as the Vedas, since the basic ideas of the Vedanta systems are derived from the Vedas.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix}} During the Vedic period (1500–600 BC{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix}}) the [[Rishi]]s formulated their religio-philosophical and poetical visions, which are further explored in the [[Upanishads]],{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxix–xxx}} the ''jnāna-kānda'' of the Vedas.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}} The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments."{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx}} This philosophical inquiry was performed by the [[darsanas]], the various philosophical schools.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxx–xxxi}}
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At the end or culmination of the Vedas, in the sense that they embody the highest philosophical knowledge of the Vedas, Upanishads, are also called Uttara Mimamsa. Vedanta is also called '''Uttara Mimamsa''', or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mimamsa which deals with the previous part of the Vedas, namely the [[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmanas]]. Thus, both Purva and Uttara Mimamsa are directly based on the Vedas. Purva Mimasa refers to the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry' in the Brahmana granthas, is also called Karma Mimamsa, or is simply called as Mimamsa. It deals with explanations of the ''Karma-kanda'' or rituals part of the Vedic mantras in Samhita and Brahmanas, while Uttara Mimamsa, also called as Vedanta or Jnana Mimamsa, deals with the philosophical knowledge of [[Upanishads]] or the ''Jnana-kanda'' of the Vedas.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962) ''The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey.'' Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>
  
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Deutsch and Dalvi point out that in the Indian context, texts "are only part of a tradition which is preserved in its purest form in the oral transmission as it has been going on."{{sfn|deutsch|2004|p=95}} The Upanishads form the basic texts, of which Vedanta gives an interpretation.{{sfn|Deutsch|2004|p=95-96}}
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== Aims and Characteristics of Vedanta ==
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The philosophy of Vedanta, like all other systems of thought, is an attempt to clearly understand and offer an explanation of all things (vastu vichara) in the world as it appears to us in our knowledge.  
  
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===Bhedabheda and Bādarāyana's Brahma Sutras===
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: सर्व्वस्यापि वस्तुविचारोद्देशपूर्व्वकत्वात् प्रतिज्ञातं वेदान्तं नामतो निर्दिशति वेदान्त इति ।<ref name=":1" />
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{{Main|Brahma Sutras}}
 
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The Brahma Sutras of Bādarāyana, also called the ''Vedanta Sutra'',{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxii}}{{refn|group=note|The Vedānta-sūtra are known by a variety of names, including (1) Brahma-sūtra, (2) Śārīraka, (3) Vyāsa-sūtra, (4) Bādarāyaṇa-sūtra, (5) Uttara-mīmāṁsā and (6) Vedānta-darśana.<ref name = SDG>{{Citation | first = S.D. | last = Goswāmi | author-link = Satsvarupa dāsa Goswāmi | title =Readings in Vedic Literature: The Tradition Speaks for Itself |  publisher = [https://books.google.com/books?id=ockZAAAAMAAJ] | year = 1976 | pages = 240 pages | isbn = 0-912776-88-9 }}</ref>}} are traditionally ascribed to Bādarāyana,{{refn|group=note|Estimates of the date of Bādarāyana's lifetime differ between 200 BCE}} and 200 CE.{{sfn|Pandey|2000|p=4}} but "are best understood as a group of sutras composed by multiple authors over the course of hundreds of years."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} They were most likely compiled in the present form around 400–450 CE,{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} but "the great part of the ''Sutra'' must have been in existence much earlier than that."{{sfn|Nakamura|1990|p=436}}
 
  
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The earliest stratum of sutras in the ''Brahmasutras'' is concerned with interpretation of the Upanishads, especially the differences between the ''Chandogya Upanishad'', the ''Brhadanyaka Upanisgad'', and the ''Taittiriya Upanishad''.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} Later additions were concerned with the refutation of rival philosophical schools, especially Samkhya.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''[[Bhedabheda]]'' point of view,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}} the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "Numerous Indologists, including Surendranath Dasgupta, Paul hacker, Hajime Nakamura, and Mysore Hiriyanna, have described Bhedabheda as the most influential school of Vedanta before Sankara."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}}}
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It is an attempt to determine the nature of the ultimate reality and to understand how it presents before us a world of manifoldness, in order to clearly understand the place and destiny of man in the world system. Vedanta philosophy considers two very important questions: the theoretical determination of the nature of substance or reality underlying experience and of the origin of knowledge, and the ethical problem of duty and the ultimate ideal of human life. Both these questions are thoroughly discussed and solutions are offered in the system.
  
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Bādarāyana was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}} He refers to seven Vedantic teachers before him:{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}
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=== Nature of Texts ===
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{{quote|From the way in which Bādarāyana cites the views of others it is obvious that the teachings of the Upanishads must have been analyzed and interpreted by quite a few before him and that his systematization of them in 555 sutras arranged in four chapters must have been the last attempt, most probably the best.{{sfn|Balasubramanian|2000|p=xxxiii}}}}
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The ''Vedanta'' includes the class of literature under the heading [[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthana Trayi]], namely the [[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]], [[Brahmasutra (ब्रह्मसूत्र)|Brahmasutras]] or Sharirakasutras and [[Bhagavad Gita (भगवद्गीता)|Bhagavadgita]]. It essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas summarized in the Brahmasutras of Badarayana. All the diverse schools of Vedanta claim to propound the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching. The [[Upanishads]] may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:
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# The ''[[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhita]],'' ''[[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]]'' and the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' collectively form the [[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]. The ''[[Upanishads]]'' discuss the philosophical aspects of the ''[[Vedas (वेदाः)|Vedas]]'' and with respect to their being at end of the Brahmana and Aranyaka texts they are termed Vedanta.
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# In respect to the their time of study, the ''[[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]'' were studied the last, during the last two ashramas in a man's life namely the [[Vanaprasthashrama (वानप्रस्थाश्रमः)|Vanaprastha]] and [[Sannyasashrama (सन्न्यासाश्रमः)|Sannyasa]].
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# The ''[[Upanishads]]'' mark the culmination of Vedic thought.<ref name=":0" />
  
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The cryptic aphorisms of the Vedanta Sutras are open to a variety of interpretations, resulting in the formation of numerous Vedanta schools, each interpreting the texts in its own way and producing its own sub-commentaries.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26-27}}
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=== Style of Composition of Vedanta Texts ===
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A major portion of the Vedanta literature is composed in ‘Sutra’ format, or aphorisms, for example - अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा। A ‘[[Sutras (सूत्राणि)|Sutra]]’ is a short statement/phrase/rule/letters which is capable of being remembered, in the oral tradition. The brevity of the Sutra, while making it easy to remember, provides the commentator opportunity to comment on that and draw his own interpretation. The commentaries are called as “[[Bhashya (भाष्यम्)|Bhashya]]”, and the commentators ‘Bhashyakara’. Many a time, the commentator composed his own shlokas, for easy memorization, and provided his own commentary on what he has composed.
  
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===Between Brahma Sutras and Shankara===
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=== Goal of Life ===
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According to Nakamura, "there must have been an enormous number of other writings turned out in this period, but unfortunately all of them have been scattered or lost and have not come down to us today".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya.{{sfn|Roodurmum|2002}} In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.<ref group=web>[http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html advaita-deanta.org, ''Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya'']</ref> Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give insight into the development of early Vedanta philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}
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All activity in the universe, of man and of every other living being, if analyzed, will be found to have for its object one of these three:- ''to be (to exist), to know, and to be happy''. The goal of all thinking beings is 
  
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The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the ''Siddhitraya'' by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the ''Vedārthasamgraha'' by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the ''Yatīndramatadīpikā'' by Śrīnivāsa-dāsa.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Combined together,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} at least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|Bhartŗhari (c. 450–500), Upavarsa (c. 450–500), Bodhāyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmānandin) (c. 500–550), Dravida (c. 550), Bhartŗprapañca (c. 550), Śabarasvāmin (c. 550), Bhartŗmitra (c. 550–600), Śrivatsānka (c. 600), Sundarapāndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600–700), Gaudapada (c. 640–690), Govinda (c. 670–720), Mandanamiśra (c. 670–750).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}}}
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# to exist ''always'' and ''everywhere'' 
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# to know ''always'' and ''all things''
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# to be happy ''always'' and ''under all conditions''
  
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===Gaudapada and Shankara===
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Thus the innermost aim of man is to exist indefinitely, to have knowledge and happiness, absolutely unlimited by any restrictions of time or space. The seed to realize this aim of man is found in the instinctive abhorrence of death / suffering (opposite of existence), ignorance (opposite of knowing) and misery (the opposite of happiness). The three characteristics of existence, knowledge and happiness are thus essential to the very nature of conscious life and the attainment of a perfect state of these three characteristics is a supreme state beyond any kind of known limitation.<ref name=":4">Aiyar, Krishnaswami R. (Reprint 1978) ''Outlines of Vedanta'' Bombay: Chetana Pvt. Ltd. pp. 1-7</ref>
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{{Main|Advaita Vedanta}}
 
  
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Gaudapada wrote or compiled{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}} the {{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}, also known as the {{IAST|Gauḍapāda Kārikā}} and as the {{IAST|Āgama Śāstra}}.{{refn|group=note|Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine between the four chapters.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}}}} Gaudapda took over the Buddhist doctrines that [[Yogacara#Representation-only|ultimate reality is pure consciousness (''vijñapti-mātra'')]]{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the ''Mandukaya Upanisad'', which was further developed by Shankara".{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177-178}}
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=== Person, Thing and The Supreme Entity ===
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[[Srishti (सृष्टिः)|Sristhi]] or Creation is found to consist of entities which are either ''persons'' or ''things'' which have the characteristics of ''nama (name)'' and ''rupa (form).'' The words ‘organic’ and ‘inorganic’, ‘conscious’ and ‘unconscious’, ‘subject and object’, are often used instead of 'persons' and 'things'.  However, here we allude to the terms person and things. Both the person and things have three inseparable characteristics:-  
  
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Adi Shankara (788–820), elaborated on Gaudapada's work, and is considered to be the founder of Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} It was Shankara who succeeded in reading Gaudapada's ''mayavada''{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}{{refn|group=note|name=mayavada|The term "mayavada" is still being used, in a critical way, by the Hare Krshnas. See <ref group=web>[http://gaudiyatouchstone.net/mayavada-and-buddhism-%E2%80%93-are-they-one-and-same Swami B.V. Giri, Gaudya Touchstone, ''Mayavada and Buddhism – Are They One and the Same?'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://www.harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html harekrishnatemple.com, ''Mayavada Philosophy'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://www.harekrsna.com/philosophy/gss/sadhu/sampradayas/mayavada/mayavada.htm harekrsna.com, ''The Mayavada School'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada Gaura Gopala Dasa, ''The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada'']</ref>}} into Badarayana's ''Brahma Sutras'', "and give it a ''locus classicus''",{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}} against the realistic strain of the ''Brahma Sutras''.{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "The ''Brahmasutras'' themselves espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}{{refn|group=note|B.N.K. Sharma: "[H]ow difficult he himself found the task of making the Sutras yield a Monism of his conception, is proved by the artificiality and ''parenthetical irrelevance of his comments'' in many places, where he seeks to go against the spirit and letter of the Sutras and their natural drift of arguments and dialectic [...] he was fighting with all his might and ingenuity against a long line of realistic commentaries."{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}}} His interpretation, including works ascribed to him, has become the normative interpretation of Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004}}{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}
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'''- A person: He is, he knows, he enjoys.'''  
  
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Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of these early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} Shankara "was the person who synthesized the ''Advaita-vāda'' which had previously existed before him".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} In this synthesis, he was the rejuvenator and defender of ancient learning.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} He was an unequalled commentator,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} due to whose efforts and contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant position within Indian philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}}
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'''- A thing: It is, it is known, it is enjoyed.'''
  
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===Bhakti===
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The common characteristic therefore of a person and of a thing is that he or it is (i.e., he/it exists). The Vedanta teaches us the existence of a third entity which transcends and comprehends all creation and whose characteristics therefore are '''that it is, it knows and is known, enjoys and is enjoyed'''. Such a third entity is a Supreme Entity and has specific set of attributes, chiefly of transcendence. The highest goal of human life is the realization in actual experience of that Supreme Entity. This realization can be made possible only in successive stages of practical training. Note that the word ‘God’, in ordinary parlance, connotes a ‘personality’, ever so Supreme and Transcendent, while the word ‘Brahman’ signifies that Transcendent Supreme Being who is strictly impersonal.<ref name=":4" />
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{{Main|Bhakti|Bhakti movement}}
 
  
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Bhedabheda Vedanta schools played an important role in the rise of ''bhakti'', such as [[Suddhadvaita]], founded by [[Vallabha]]<ref name="Washington" /> (1479–1531 CE), [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]], founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534){{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=248}} and [[Vishishtadvaita]] founded by [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE).
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=== Necessity for Right Understanding ===
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Vedantic teachings, which were treasured as the highest and sublimest of truths reserved to be imparted only to the qualified and the tested, are in the recent centuries thrown broadcast so that they have become the common property of the worst sinner and the noblest saint. According to our Sastras the only standpoint from which we can really solve and realize the relationship between the subject or perceiver and the object or perceived is when we transcend both. No amount of reasoning can enable us to arrive at such a stage, for all reasoning assumes more or less the stable existence of the reasoning perceiver and of the perceived as well.<ref name=":5">Aiyar, Krishnaswami R. (Reprint 1978) ''Outlines of Vedanta'' Bombay: Chetana Pvt. Ltd. </ref>
  
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===Integration of various schools===
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Thus, Vedanta teaches us to understand the concept of 'reality or stable existence' unravelling the relationship between the person and thing. Philosophers have either denied the existence of the person, thing or relationship between them.
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According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century,
 
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{{quote|...&nbsp;certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}{{refn|group=note|The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=24-33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=26-27}}}}}}
 
  
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Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}} especially [[Vijnanabhiksu]], a [[Bhedabheda]] Vedantin.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} [[Neo-Vedanta]] too was inspired by these thinkers.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}}
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- Some believe that the perceiver is a constant persistent individuality (Atman) and the universe is an everchanging restless mass of phenomena cognized by the perceiver as the objects of his perception, thus objects have no independent existence without the perceiver (Jagat-shunyavadins).  
  
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==Vedanta philosophy==
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- Another set of philosophers assume the permanent existence of the perceived universe and seek to analyze the perceiver. The perceiver is not a constant individuality and has no independent existence without the perceived. Just like the water in the river is always flowing and is therefore impermanent and ever-changing, so also the Atman is only a notional entity - a mere void - an everchanging succession of perceptions of phenomena (Atma-shunyavadin).
  
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===Basic questions===
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These two sets of philosophers—the Jagatshunyavadis (Idealists) and the Atmashunyavadis (Materialists) — thus try to solve the relationship between the perceiver and the perceived by denying the existence of the one or the other.  
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The schools of Vedānta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Ātman (Hinduism)|atman]] and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and the world.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=176-177}}
 
  
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The schools of Vedanta are named after the relation they see between atman and Brahman:{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}
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- A third set of philosophers (Sankhyavadins) realize there is essential difference and incompatibility of the perceiver and the perceived. The perceiver is conscious, unchanging and unchangeable in essence. The perceived is unconscious and ever-changing. All sensation is the result of contact between these two. All pain and misery is the result of this contact whether it follows immediately or after a short-lived appearance of pleasure. Once we realize that the perceiver is not and cannot be in any way related to the perceived, we are free from pain and to that end must all activities be directed. This denial of relationship between the perceiver and the perceived, this insistence on their absolute distinctness, is the basis of the [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] school of philosophy.<ref name=":5" />
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* According to Advaita Vedanta, there is no difference.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}}
 
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* According to Dvaita the jīvātman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.  
 
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* According to Vishishtadvaita, the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
 
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* According to Shuddhadvaita, the jīvātman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jīvātman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.
 
  
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Sivananda gives the following explanation:
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Vedanta thus, studies the above aspects in detail, as different schools of thought have proposed a different interpretation of reality and creation of the universe.  
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{{quote|Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|p=217}}}}
 
  
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All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',<ref group=web name="IEPBheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}<ref group=web name="IEPBheda" /> as well as Samkhya,<ref group=web name="IEPBheda" /> support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins".{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman:
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=== Right Knowledge ===
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{{quote|[A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are essentially unreal, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}
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The great contribution of the Nyaya system is its elaborate and critical theories of investigation. All the problems pertaining to the theory of knowledge have been stated with remarkable clarity in an analytical fashion. The several instruments of knowledge or [[Pramanas in Astika Darshanas (आस्तिकदर्शन-प्रमाणानि)|Pramanas]], together with the possible pitfalls and fallacies have been set forth in a lucid manner. The Nyaya scheme of sixteen [[Padarthas (पदार्थाः)|Padarthas]] or categories has supplied the Indian thinkers, through centuries, with the means of discriminating, quickly and surely the true from the false inferences making it an indispensable shastra to the study of all other systems.<ref name=":2" />
  
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===Common features===
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Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, Vedas or Shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while [[perception]], or pratyaksa, and logical inference, or Anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid). Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes it irreconcilable with Mimamsa.
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Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:{{sfn|Sheridan|1985|p=136}} 
 
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* Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]''—The [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.
 
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* Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion.  Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be renounced.
 
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* Bondage is subjection to [[Saṃsāra]], the cycle of death and rebirth.
 
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* [[Moksha|Liberation]] is deliverance from this cycle.
 
  
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Traditional Vedānta considers scriptural evidence, or [[Testimony|shabda pramāna]], as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or [[Perception|pratyaksa]], and logical inference, or [[Inference|anumana]], are considered to be subordinate (but valid).{{sfn|Puligandla|1997}}{{sfn|Raju|1992}}
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== Schools of Vedanta ==
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As discussed in the previous section, Badarayana's Brahmasutras attempted to set forth the unanimous teachings of the Upanishads and defend them against possible and actual objections. His sutras being brief, were open to different interpretations. Various commentaries thus came to be written to elaborate the  doctrines of each Vedantic thought in their own light. Each of them tried to justify its position as the only one consistent with the revealed texts (Shrutis) and the sutras. The author of each of the chief commentaries (bhashya) became the founder of a particular school of Vedanta.<ref name=":3" /> We have various schools of Vedanta advocated by Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and later day proponents such as Vallabhacharya, Nimbarka, and Chaitanya Prabhu. The schools are named after the relation they see between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] and according to <ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6">Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad. (1978) ''Studies in the History of Indian Philosophy''. Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co. p.267</ref>
  
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Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes Vedanta irreconcileable with [[Mimamsa]].{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-176}}
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# '''Advaita Vedanta''' (Absolute Non-dualism) of Sri Adi Sankaracharya, there is no difference between jivatman and Brahman.
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# '''Dvaita''' (Absolute Dualism) of Sri Madhavacharya, the jivatman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.
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# '''Vishishtadvaita''' (Qualified Non-dualism) of Sri Ramanujacharya, the jivatman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
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# '''Shuddhadvaita''' (Pure Non-dualism) of Sri Vallabhacharya, the jivatman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jivatman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.
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# '''Dvaitadvaita or Bhedabheda''' (Non-dualism in Dualism) admitted by scholars like Bhaskara and Nimbarka<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":6" />, Bhartrprapancha<ref>Hiriyanna, M. (1952) ''The Quest After Perfection''. Mysore: Kavyalaya Publishers. p.75</ref> ''Brahman'' is both different (''bheda'') and not different (''abheda'') from Jagat and the individual jivatman. Bhedabheda siddhanta upholds that the ultimate reality, as taught in the Upanishads, will be neither a bare unity not a mere plurality but a vital synthesis of both. This philosophy was upheld by scholars such as Bhaskara, Yadava, Nimbarka and Chaitanya belonging to different areas of India with slight differences in their postulates.
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## '''Aupadhika Bhedabheda''' (Non-dualism in Dualism) of Bhaskara upholds the idea of Brahman as Absolute and the relative and distinguishes between chetana and achetana in the prapancha.
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## '''Achintya-bhedabheda''' (Inconceivable difference and non-difference) of Sri Chaitanya Prabhu, advocates a simultaneous oneness and multiplicity of Brahman.
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## '''Svabhavika-bhedabheda''' of Nimbarka, Yadavaprakasa and Bhartrprapancha (as per P. N. Srinivachari)<ref>Srinivasachari, P. N. (1950) ''The Philosophy of Bhedabheda''. Madras: Adyar Library. </ref> there is a natural difference between Brahman and individual Atman: Brahman is the cause and is the ruler. Atman is not omnipotent it is the effect and it attains Brahman. There is the natural non-difference: Brahman pervades the universe (the effect) like clay in the jar.<ref>https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38174/1/Unit-1.pdf</ref>
  
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==Schools of Vedanta==
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Other than the Advaita school (and Vijnanabhikshu's Avibhaga-lakshanadvaita), every school of Vedanta recognizes the necessity of devotion or Bhakti in addition to knowledge as the means to the attainment of moksha or freedom from bondage.
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{{Subschools of Vedanta|A basic classification of the Vedanta theologies.<ref>{{cite book |last=Sheridan |first=Daniel |authorlink= |title=The Advaitic Theism of the Bhāgavata Purāṇa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HqqfxYcw4JIC |accessdate=2012-12-12 |year=1986 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |location=Delhi |isbn= |page=139}}</ref>{{sfn|Raju|1992}}{{sfn|Sivananda|1993}}<ref>[http://content.iskcon.org/icj/7_2/72surya.html Gerald Surya, ''Review of "A Critique of A. C. Bhaktivedanta" by K. P. Sinha'']</ref>}}
 
  
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The contents of the Upanishads are often couched in enigmatic language, which has left them open to various interpretations. Over a period of time, various schools of Vedanta, with different interpretations of the [[Upanishad]]s and the [[Brahma Sutra]]s arose. There are three,{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}} four,{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=175-200}} five<ref name="Washington" /> or six{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=216}}{{refn|group=note|Sivananda also mentions Meykandar and the [[Shaiva Siddhanta]] philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=217}}}} which are prominent:
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Sivananda gives the following explanation:<blockquote>Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.</blockquote>
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* [[Bhedabheda]], as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/ Internet Encyclopedy of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> or even the 4th century{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=26}}
 
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** Svabhavikabhedabheda or [[Dvaitādvaita]], founded by [[Nimbarka]]<ref name="Washington" /> in the 13th century
 
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** [[Suddhadvaita]], founded by [[Vallabha]]<ref name="Washington" /> (1479–1531 CE)
 
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** [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]], founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534){{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=248}}
 
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* [[Advaita Vedanta]], founded by [[Gaudapada]] and [[Adi Sankara|Shri Adi Shankara]] around 700 CE
 
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* [[Vishishtadvaita]], also a subschool of bhedabheda, founded by [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE)
 
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* [[Dvaita]], founded by [[Shri Madhvacharya]] (1199–1278 CE)
 
  
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Proponents of other Vedantic schools continue to write and develop their ideas as well, although their works are not widely known outside of smaller circles of followers in [[India]].
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=== Common Tenets of Darshanas and Vedanta ===
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All the darshanik systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual  in this world.<ref>Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) ''The Schools of Vedanta''. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22</ref>
  
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===Bhedabheda===
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The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahma sutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], and the relation between Brahman and Jagat, the world. Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core: 
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[[Bhedabheda]] (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference",<ref name="IEPbheda"/> existed as early as the 7th century CE,<ref name="IEPbheda"/> but Bādarāyaṇa’s Brahma Sūtra (c. 4th century CE) may also have been written from a Bhedābheda Vedāntic viewpoint.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> According to the Bhedābheda Vedānta schools the individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman.<ref name="IEPbheda"/> [[Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school.<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Major names of this school are [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]] (8th-9th century),<ref name="IEPbheda" /> Rāmānuja’s teacher Yādavaprakāśa,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Nimbārka]] (13th century) who founded the [[Dvaitadvaita]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" /> [[Vallabha]] (1479–1531)<ref name="IEPbheda" /> who founded [[Shuddhadvaita]],<ref name="Washington">[http://faculty.washington.edu/prem/Colloquium03-DiffVedantas.pdf Prem Pahlajrai, Asian Languages and Literature, University of Washington, ''Vedanta: A Comparative Analysis of Diverse Schools'']</ref> [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu|Caitanya]] (1486–1534) who founded the [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]] school,<ref name="IEPbheda" />{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} and [[Vijnanabhiksu|Vijñānabhikṣu]] (16th century).<ref name="IEPbheda" />
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* '''Concept of Brahman''' - Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthana Trayi (प्रस्थानत्रयी)|Prasthanatrayi]].'' It involves an understanding of Reality, the ultimate Truth, knowledge of Brahman (Self), experience of consciousness, relationship and causality of man and universe, Avidya (ignorance), Maya (illusion) etc. All schools support this Supreme Entity though they differ in the way they express the qualities regarding Brahman.
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* '''Concept of Atman''' - Atman is the transcendental background of both individual self and non-self, expressed as self or consciousness. The same reality is called from the subjective side as Atman and from the objective side as Brahman and both terms are used as synonyms.<ref name=":3" /> All systems explain Atman, Jivatman, to support plurality of beings.
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* '''Concept of Karma''' - Actions or karma help prepare the mind (Chittashuddhi) for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards are renounced. Actions, knowledge and devotion are three paths to attain knowledge of the self. Karma is intricately related to rewards of action such as Papa (demerits) and Punya (merits) which are adrstha or unseen effects.
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* '''Concept of Dharma''' -  Atman can be realized by one who does practice self-control, desirelessness, and concentration of mind. Moral purity is the indispensable pre-requisite of knowledge of atman. Karma is not excluded from moral life.
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* '''Concept of Punarjanma''' - Bondage is subjection to Saṃsāra due to attachment to results or fruits of actions. Death and rebirth, is cyclical and results from attachment to karmaphala and Nishkama Karma leads one to escape this Punarjama cycle. Punarjanma is again a fundamental concept widely accepted and discussed in many ancient Indian texts.
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* '''Concept of Moksha''' - Liberation is deliverance from the punarjanma cycle leads to Moksha. It is regarded as the highest aim of human life.  
  
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===Dvaitādvaita===
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To attain the highest goal of human life, the successive stages in the realization are summarized as<ref name=":5" />:
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[[Dvaitādvaita]] was propounded by [[Nimbarka|Nimbārka]] (13th century), based upon [[Bhedabheda|Bhedābheda]], which was taught by [[Bhāskara (philosopher)|Bhāskara]]. According to this school, the ''jīvātman'' is at once the same and yet different from Brahman.  The jiva relation may be regarded as dvaita from one point of view and advaita from another. In this school, God is visualized as [[Krishna]].<ref name="Vedanta"/>
 
  
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===Shuddhādvaita===
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* Realization of the distinction between ‘person’ and ‘thing’.
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[[File:Shri mahaprabhuji.jpg|thumb|right|text|Vallabhacharya]]
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* Realization of the identity between ‘thing' and the Supreme Entity.
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[[Shuddhadvaita]] was propounded by [[Vallabhacharya]] (1479–1531 CE). This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to [[Goloka]]' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "[[Pushtimarga]]" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind".<ref name="Vedanta"/>On the basis of quadruple “Proof Corpus” (pramāna catuṣṭaya) comprising [[Sruti|Srutis]] and [[Smriti|Smrutis]], [[Brahmasutra]], [[Gita]] and [[Bhagvatam|Shrimadbhagvata]], Vallabhacharya propounded the philosophy of “[[shuddhadvaita]] brahmvaad” (pure non-dualism), according to which Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankar, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman]] only. Brahman has created the world without connection with or help from any external agency such as Maya, which itself is his power. Brahman manifests Himself through the world. [[Śruti|Srutis]] say Brahman or Ishvara desired to become many, and he became the multitude of individual souls and the world (jagat).<ref>Devarshi Ramanath Shastri, “Shuddhadvaita Darshan (Vol.2)”, Published by Mota Mandir, Bhoiwada, Mumbai, India, 1917.</ref> That is how Vallabh’s shuddhadvaita is known as ‘Unmodified transformation’ or ‘Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda’, while Shankar’s Advaita or Kevaladvaita is known as ‘[[Vivartavada|Vivartavāda]]’. Vallabha recognises Brahman as the whole and the individual as a ‘part’. The individual soul ([[Jiva|Jeeva]] or jeevatma) and God are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. The soul is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref>“Brahmavād Saṅgraha”, Pub. Vaishnava Mitra Mandal Sarvajanik Nyasa, Indore, India, 2014.</ref> 
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* Realization of the identity between ‘person’ and the Supreme Entity.
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* Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.
  
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===Achintya-Bheda-Abheda===
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All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'', which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''Parinamavada'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''Parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''Vivartavada'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman.
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Founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]]{{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=247}} (1486–1534). Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference'',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} in relation to the power creation and creator, ([[Krishna]]), [[svayam bhagavan]].{{sfn|Kaviraja|year unknown}} and also between God and his energies{{sfn|Prabhupada|1972}} within the [[Gaudiya Vaishnavism|Gaudiya Vaishnava]] religious tradition. In [[Sanskrit]] ''achintya'' means 'inconceivable',{{sfn|Gupta|2007|p=47-52}} ''bheda'' translates as 'difference', and ''abheda'' translates as 'one-ness'.  It can be best understood as integration of strict dualist ([[Dvaita]]) view of [[Madhvacharya]] and qualified monism [[Vishishtadvaita]] of [[Ramanujacharya]] while rejecting absolute monism [[Advaita]] of [[Adi Sankara]].
 
  
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===Advaita Vedānta===
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=== Differences Among Vedanta Sampradayas ===
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[[File:Raja Ravi Varma - Sankaracharya.jpg|thumb|right|x216px|Shankaracharya]]
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The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the Vedanta school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.
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[[Advaita Vedanta]] ([[IAST]] ''{{IAST|Advaita Vedānta}}''; [[Sanskrit]]: अद्वैत वेदान्त {{IPA-sa|əd̪ʋait̪ə ʋeːd̪ɑːnt̪ə|}}) was propounded by [[Adi Shankara]] (early 8th century CE) and his grand-guru [[Gaudapada]], who described [[Ajativada]]. It is a<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=7ykZjWOiBMoC&pg=PR7 "Consciousness in Advaita Vedānta"] By William M. Indich, Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1995, ISBN 978-81-208-1251-2.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.class.uidaho.edu/ngier/GB.htm |title=Gandhi And Mahayana Buddhism |publisher=Class.uidaho.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-06-10}}</ref><ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pyon3IOpX-AC&pg=PA319&lpg=PA319 "The Experience of Hinduism: essays on religion in Maharashtra,"] By Eleanor Zelliot, Maxine Berntsen, State University of New York Press, 1980, ISBN 0-8248-0271-3.</ref> sub-school of the [[Vedānta]] (literally, ''end or the goal of the [[Vedas]]'', [[Sanskrit]]) school of [[Hindu philosophy]].<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=63gdKwhHeV0C "Advaita Vedanta: A Philosophical Reconstruction,"] By Eliot Deutsch, University of Hawaii Press, 1988, ISBN 0-88706-662-3</ref> In the school of Vedānta, Brahman is the only reality, and the world, as it appears, is illusory. As Brahman is the sole reality, it cannot be said to possess any attributes whatsoever. An illusory power of Brahman called [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā]] causes the world to arise. Ignorance of this reality is the cause of all suffering in the world and only upon true knowledge of Brahman can liberation be attained. When a person tries to know Brahman through his mind, due to the influence of Māyā, Brahman appears as God ([[Ishvara]]), separate from the world and from the individual. In reality, there is no difference between the individual soul ''jīvātman'' (see [[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]) and Brahman. Liberation lies in knowing the reality of this [[non-difference]] (i.e. a-dvaita, "non-duality"). Thus, the path to liberation is finally only through knowledge (''jñāna'').<ref name="Vedanta">[http://www.hindupedia.com/en/Vedanta Vedanta] on Hindupedia, the Hindu Encyclopedia</ref>
 
  
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===Vishishtadvaita===
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====Bhedābheda====
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[[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Rāmānuja]] (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the [[Brahman]] is asserted to have attributes ([[Saguna brahman]]), including the individual conscious souls and matter. [[Brahman]], matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. [[Māyā]] is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta"/>{{refn|group=note|[[Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita]] was propounded by Sri [[Srinivasa Deekshitulu]] (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to [[Vaikhanasa]] School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.<ref>Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala 2004</ref>}}
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Bhedabheda (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference" refers to a siddhanta which admits that individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman. This siddhanta goes back to vedic times with thinkers like Asmarathya, Audulomin and Kasakrsna offering a dualistic cum monistic interpretation of the Upanishadic passages.<ref name=":7">Agarwal, M. M. and Potter, Karl H. (2013) eds., ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol XV, Bhedabheda and Dvaitadvaita Systems''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p 21-49</ref> According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the ''Brahmasutras'' reflect a ''Bhedabheda'' point of view, the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.<ref name=":8">https://iep.utm.edu/bhedabheda-vedanta/#SH1e</ref> All Bhedābheda schools share the understanding of the relation between individual self (''jīvātman'') and Brahman as one of part and whole; the doctrine that the phenomenal world is a real transformation of Brahman (''Pariṇāmavāda''); and the doctrine that liberation can only be attained by means of a combination of knowledge and ritual action (''Jñānakarmasamuccayavāda''), not by knowledge alone. All Bhedābhedavādins maintain the reality of the phenomenal world and the multiplicity of individual selves.<ref name=":8" /> [[Bhakti (भक्तिः)|Bhakti]] found a place in later proponents of this school such as Nimbarka and Sri Chaitanya. While Bhaskara insists on the essential unity of the jiva and Brahman and Yadavaprakasa treats Ishvara and jiva as the two essential aspects of the absolute, Nimbarka refers to the jiva as a distinct entity that derives its being from Brahman and depends on it.
  
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===Dvaita===
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'''Aupadhika Bhedabheda:''' Bhaskara, accepts the three realities: Brahman or Ishvara, jiva and jagat (world). Brahman is the cause of the world, its creator, supporter, and destroyer. Brahman is both the material and efficient cause of the world and is known only from scriptural authority. Bhaskara strongly held that the world is a transformation (parinama) of one absolute abstract unity or Brahman (Brahmaparinamavada) who is real, original and natural form into many forms by means of limiting conditions (upadhi) as the principle of self differentiation at the time of creation. Hence, the difference though real is adventitious or aupadhika as there is difference and non-difference due to limiting conditions. During liberation and dissolution the self and the world are completely identical with Brahman. He equates Brahman with Vishnu, Narayana, and Vaasudeva.<ref name=":7" />
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[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.
 
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Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta"/>
 
  
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===Neo-Vedanta===
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'''Svabhavika-bhedabheda:''' Nimbarka, Nimbaditya or Niyamananda a Telugu Brahmana, revived the philosophy of earlier bhedabhedavadins such as Ashmarathya, Bhartrprapancha, and Yadavaprakasa along with his amendments and modifications. Also called Sanakasampradaya of Vaishnavism, it is greatly indebted to Ramanujacharya. Notably Nimbarka refers to the Shri and Brahma sampradayas of Ramanujacharya and Madhavacharya respectively.<ref name=":3" /> Nimbarka does not regard Brahman as purely formless and distinction-less as Bhaskara does. Bhaskara's Brahman is nirvisesha (closer to Advaita siddhanta), a pure unity or identity, but Nimbarka's Brahman is savisesha, always having internal natural differences, hence the school is called Svabhavika-bhedabheda. Jiva-jagat are never absolutely identical with Brahman (as in Advaita vedanta) and always retain their own individuality and separateness even during liberation and dissolution. Nimbarka regarded that the grace of Krishna generates devotion.<ref name=":7" /> This school is also referred to as Dvaitadvaita also.
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{{Main|Neo-Vedanta|Hindu nationalism|Hindu reform movements}}
 
  
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Neo-Vedanta is a modern interpretation of Vedanta, with a liberal attitude toward the Vedas.{{sfn|King|2001}} It reconciles dualism and non-dualism,{{sfn|Sooklal|1993}} and rejects the "universal illusionism"{{sfn|Gier|2013|p=268-269}} of Shankara, despite its reference for classical Advaita Vedanta:
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'''Achintya-Bheda-Abheda:''' Founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of ''inconceivable one-ness and difference.'' The tradition of Achintya-bhedabheda is also commonly known as Gaudiya Vaishnavism, common in West Bengal elaborated by Baladeva. It is described as Achintya or inconceivable because the identity in difference is essentially indescribable and unthinkable due to the inconceivable power of Brahman or Shrikrishna. The teachings of Chaitanya are based mainly on the Bhagavata. Concept of Achintya is accepted to reconcile the apparent contradictions in the nature of Brahman. Jivas are innumerable and remain distinct even in liberation. They emanate from Brahman like rays from the sun and are absolutely dependent on Him. Bhakti is the sole means of liberation.<ref name=":3" />
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{{quote|Ramakrsna, Svami Vivekananda, and Aurobindo (I also include M.K. Gandhi) have been labeled "neo-Vedantists," a philosophy that rejects the Advaitins' claim that the world is illusory. Aurobindo, in his ''The Life Divine'', declares that he has moved from Sankara's "universal illusionism" to his own "universal realism" (2005: 432), defined as metaphysical realism in the European philosophical sense of the term.{{sfn|Gier|2013|p=268-269}}}}
 
  
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[[Mohandas Gandhi]] endorsed the Jain concept of [[Anekantavada]],{{sfn|Panicker|2006|p=190-191}} the notion that truth and reality are perceived differently from diverse points of view, and that no single point of view is the complete truth.{{sfn|Dundas|2004|p=123–136}}{{sfn|Koller|2004|p=400–407}} This concept embraces the perspectives of both Vedānta which, according to Jainism, "recognizes [[Substance theory|substances]] but not process", and Buddhism, which "recognizes [[Process philosophy|process]] but not substance". Jainism, on the other hand, pays equal attention to both substance (''dravya'') and process (''paryaya'').{{sfn|Burch|1964|p=68–93}}
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====Shuddhādvaita====
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Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabhacharya, a Telugu Brahmana. This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "Pushtimarga" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport ([[līlā]]) of [[Krishna]], who is ''[[Satchitananda|Sat-Chit-Ananda]]'' or, "eternal bliss mind". According to this school Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankaracharya, but the entire universe is real and is subtly [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]] only. Brahman is independent reality and is identified with Shrikrishna. His essence is Sat-chit- ananda. Jiva and jagat are the real manifestations of Brahman and the relationship is that of whole and parts. Vallabha differs from Shankaracharya in that he proposes the Maya or Avidya is the power of Brahman through which he manifests the world but it is neither an illusion nor an error. It is real manifestation, ''Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda'', where the universe is a natural emanation from Brahman which does not involve a notion or change (parinama) and is not an unreal appearance (vivarta). The individual soul ([[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] or jivatma) and Brahman are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. Jiva is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).<ref name=":3" />
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====Advaita Vedānta====
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Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms
  
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Neo-Vedanta developed in the 19th century, in interaction with and response to colonialism.{{sfn|King|2001}} With the onset of the [[British Raj]], the colonialisation of India by the British, there also started a [[Bengali renaissance|Hindu renaissance]] in the 19th century, which profoundly changed the understanding of Hinduism in both India and the west.{{sfn|King|2002}} Western [[Orientalism|orientalist]] searched for the "essence" of the Indian religions, discerning this in the Vedas,{{sfn|King|2002|118}} and meanwhile creating the notion of "Hinduism" as a unified body of religious praxis{{sfn|King|1999}} and the popular picture of 'mystical India'.{{sfn|King|1999}}{{sfn|King|2002}}
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# as associated with (that is, manifested as) the subject or knower (or Consciousness limited by the mind), the [[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] (pramatr) - Pramatr-chaitanyam
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# as associated with the object (Vishaya) - Vishaya-chaitanyam
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# as associated with the mental state/antahkarana (pramana) - Pramana-chaitanyam
  
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This idea of a Vedic essence was taken over by the Hindu reformers, together with the ideas of [[Universalism in religion|Universalism]] and [[Perennial philosophy|Perennialism]], the idea that all religions share a common [[Mysticism|mystic]] ground.{{sfn|King|2002|p==119-120}} The [[Brahmo Samaj]], who was supported for a while by the [[Unitarianism|Unitarian Church]],{{sfn|Jones|2006|p=114}} played an essential role in the introduction and spread of this new understanding of Hinduism.{{sfn|King|2002|p=123}} Vedanta came to be regarded as the essence of Hinduism, and Advaita Vedanta came to be regarded as "then paradigmatic example of the mystical nature of the Hindu religion".{{sfn|King|2002|p=128}}
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Perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the sense organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.<ref>Swami Madhavananda. trans., ''Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra.'' Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha. pp 14, 15</ref> Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,<ref name="acdas">Das, A. C. (1952). [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1397304 Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics]. ''Philosophy East and West'', ''2''(2), 144–154. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.2307/1397304</nowiki></ref> it is pure being, non-dual, immutable, eternal and devoid of all attributes. , no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same. The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and adhyatmik. ''Brahman'' is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.<ref name="Arvind Sharma 2007 pages 19-40">Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86</ref> The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (''[[Atman (Hinduism)|Atman]]'') gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("[[Avidya (Hinduism)|Avidya]]"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.<ref name="dx.doi.org">Anantanand Rambachan (2001), [http://dx.doi.org/10.7825/2164-6279.1250 Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta], Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6</ref> The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. ''Brahman'' is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.<ref name="acdas" /> This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "''Ekam sat''" ("Truth is one"), and all is ''Brahman''.
  
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A major proponent in the popularisation of this Universalist and Perennialist interpretation of Advaita Vedanta was [[Vivekananda]],{{sfn|King|2002|p=135-142}} who played a major role in the [[Hindu nationalism|revival of Hinduism]],{{sfn|Dense|1999|p=191}} and the spread of Advaita Vedanta to the west via the [[Vedanta Society]], the international arm of [[Ramakrishna Order]]. His interpretation of Advaita Vedanta has been called "Neo-Vedanta".{{sfn|Mukerji|1983}} The popular understanding of Hinduism has been dominated by this [[neo-Vedanta]],{{sfn|King|1999}}{{refn|group=note|Also called neo-Hinduism{{sfn|King|1999}}}} in which mysticism,{{sfn|King|1999}} Aryan origins and the unity of Hinduism{{sfn|King|1999|p=171}} have been emphasised.{{sfn|Muesse|2011|p=3-4}}{{sfn|Doniger|2010|p=18}}{{sfn|Jouhki|2006|p=10-11}}{{sfn|King|1999}}
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The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it ''is'' Brahman. According to Adi Shankara, a proponent of Advaita Vedanta, the knowledge of Brahman that [[shruti]] provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.<ref>Anantanand Rambachan (1994), ''The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas.'' University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124</ref> In Advaita Vedanta, nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.<ref name="acdas" /> Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature.  
  
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These notions also served well for the Hindu nationalists, who further popularised this notion of Advaita Vedanta as the pinnacle of Indian religions.{{sfn|King|2002|p=129-130}} It "provided an opportunity for the construction of a nationalist ideology that could unite Hindus in their struggle against colonial oppression".{{sfn|King|2002|p=133}}
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====Vishishtadvaita====
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[[Vishishtadvaita]] was propounded by [[Rāmānuja]] (1017–1137 CE) and says that the ''jīvātman'' is a part of [[Brahman]], and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the [[Brahman]] is asserted to have attributes ([[Saguna brahman]]), including the individual conscious souls and matter. [[Brahman]], matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds [[Bhakti]] or devotion to God visualized as [[Vishnu]] to be the path to liberation. [[Māyā]] is seen as the creative power of God.<ref name="Vedanta" />{{refn|group=note|[[Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita]] was propounded by Sri [[Srinivasa Deekshitulu]] (950 A.D.). It is primarily related to [[Vaikhanasa]] School of thought (based on Taittiriya Aranyaka) based on Badarayana Sariraka Sutras. It is strictly followed by the original priests of the celebrated ancient Tirumala Hill Shrine even to this day. It proposes that Brahman can be in sakala and nishkala forms. To meditate on the nishkala aspect of Brahman, the starting point is sakala (with attributes). This school propounds 'Archana' (Worship), supplemented by 'Jnana' (knowledge) and 'Bhakti' (devotion) to be the path to liberation. In this school of thought the ultimate Brahman is Lord Vishnu along with goddess Lakshmi. Lord Vishnu must be worshipped along with Goddess Lakshmi. Tirumala Kshetram is one of the best examples of the implementation of the 'Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaitam'.<ref>Sri Lakshmi Visishtadvaita Bhashyam by Ubhaya Vedanta Pravartaka Srinivasa Deekshitiyam; Sri Vaikhanasa Sariraka Sampradaya Prakasakam published by Sri Vikhanas Trust, Tirumala 2004</ref>}}
  
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==Influence==
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====Dvaita====
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The Vedanta school has had a historic and central influence on Hinduism, states Nakamura:<ref name=hajimenakamura3>Hajime Nakamura (2004), A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Part 2, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120819634, page 3</ref>
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[[Dvaita]] was propounded by [[Madhvacharya|Madhwāchārya]] (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with [[Brahman]] completely, and in turn with [[Vishnu]] or his various incarnations like [[Krishna]], [[Narasimha]], [[Venkateswara|Srinivāsa]] etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards [[Brahman]], all individual souls (''jīvātman''s) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates [[Bhakti]] as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively.
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Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.<ref name="Vedanta" />
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Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.
 +
Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between [[Tattva]]s (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:{{citation needed|date=June 2015}}
 +
#Jîva-Îshvara-bheda&nbsp;— difference between the soul and Vishnu
 +
#Jada-Îshvara-bheda&nbsp;— difference between the insentient and Vishnu
 +
#Mitha-jîva-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two souls
 +
#Jada-jîva-bheda&nbsp;— difference between insentient and the soul
 +
#Mitha-jada-bheda&nbsp;— difference between any two insentients
 +
== Discussion ==
  
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{{Quote|
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=== Brahman as a metaphysical concept ===
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The prevalence of Vedanta thought is found not only in philosophical writings but also in various forms of ([[Hindu]]) literature, such as the epics, lyric poetry, drama and so forth. What is especially worthy of attention is that the Hindu religious sects, the common faith of the Indian populace, looked to Vedanta philosophy for the theoretical foundations for their theology. The influence of Vedanta is prominent in the sacred literatures of Hinduism, such as the various Puranas, Samhitas, Agamas and Tantras. Many commentaries on the fundamental scripture of Vedanta, the Brahmasutra, were written by the founders or leading scholars of the various sects of Hinduism, and they are transmitted to this day as documents indispensable in the respective sectarian traditions. The majority of the traditional and conservative scholars in India today, called Pandits, are students of Vedanta, and an overwhelming number belong to the lineage of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] – five-sixths of all Pandits, according to some authorities.
+
Brahman is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of metaphysics: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real?Brahman is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" Māyā in various orthodox Hindu schools. Māyā pre-exists and co-exists with Brahman – the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles.
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|[[Hajime Nakamura]] (2004)|A History of Early Vedānta Philosophy, Volume 2<ref name=hajimenakamura3/>}}
 
  
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[[Frithjof Schuon]] summarizes the influence of Vedanta on Hinduism as, "The Vedanta contained in the Upanishads, then formulated in the ''Brahma Sutra'', and finally commented and explained by Shankara, is an invaluable key for discovering the deepest meaning of all the religious doctrines and for realizing that the ''[[Sanatana Dharma]]'' secretly penetrates all the forms of traditional spirituality.<ref>F Schuon (1975), One of the Great Lights of the World, in ''Spiritual Perspectives, Essays in Mysticism and Metaphysics (Editor: TMP Mahadevan), Arnold Heineman, ISBN , page 91</ref><ref>Klaus Witz (1998), The Supreme Wisdom of the Upaniṣads: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120815735, page 11</ref> [[Gavin Flood]] states, "the most influential school of theology in India has been Vedanta, exerting enormous influence on all religious traditions and becoming the central ideology of the Hindu renaissance in the nineteenth century. It has become the philosophical paradigm of Hinduism ''par excellence''."<ref name=gavinfloodaith238>Gavin Flood (1996), An Introduction to Hinduism, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0521438780, page 238</ref>
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In addition to the concept of Brahman, Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of Atman – or soul, self – which is also considered ultimately real. The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the dual and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from Brahman, or same as Brahman. Those that consider Brahman and Atman as distinct are theistic, and Dvaita Vedanta and later Nyaya schools illustrate this premise. Those that consider Brahman and Atman as same are monist or pantheistic, and Advaita Vedanta, later Samkhya and Yoga schools illustrate this metaphysical premise. In schools that equate Brahman with Atman, Brahman is the sole, ultimate reality. The predominant teaching in the Upanishads is the adhyatmik identity of soul within each human being, with the soul of every other human being and living being, as well as with the supreme, ultimate reality ''Brahman''.
  
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[[Lucian Blaga]] has often used the concepts ''Marele Anonim'' (‘the Great Anonymous’) and ''cenzura transcendentă'' (‘the transcendental censorship’) in his philosophy. He was influenced by Śaṅkara’s concepts of ''Brahman'' (‘God’) and ''māyā'' (‘illusion’).<ref> Iţu, Mircia (2007), ''Marele Anonim şi cenzura transcendentă la Blaga. Brahman şi māyā la Śaṅkara (‘The Great Anonymous and the transcendental censorship in Lucian Blaga. Brahman and māyā in Adi Shankara’),'' in ''Caiete critice'' 6-7 (236-237), Bucarest, pages 75-83. {{ISSN|1220-6350}}.</ref> In Śaṅkarācārya, Brahman is understood as ''nirguna Brahman'' (‘God without attributes’), whilst Īśvara is ''saguna Brahman'' (God with attributes). [[Louis Renou]] underlines that Brahman is superior to ''Īśvara'', while [[Olivier Lacombe]] writes that Brahman is Īśvara’s superlative.<ref>Lacombe, Olivier (1979), ''Indianité. Etudes historiques et comparatives sur la pensée indienne'', Paris: Les Belles Lettres.</ref> Brahman is different than Greek Zeus, as well as than Christian or Jewish God, than Muslim Allah, because he is transpersonal.<ref> Iţu, Mircia (2004), ''Filosofia şi religiile Indiei (‘Indian Philosophy and Indian Religions’)'', Braşov: Orientul latin, page. 69 ISBN 973-9338-70-4</ref>  Māyā is a fundamental concept in Vedanta. It has several meanings and it has often been translated as ‘illusion’. According to L. Thomas O’Neil, māyā signifies ‘measuring the immeasurable’.<ref>O’Neil, Thomas L. (1980), ''Māyā in Śaṅkara. Measuring the Immeasurable'', New Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, page 140.</ref>
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In the metaphysics of the major schools of Hinduism, Maya is perceived reality, one that does not reveal the hidden principles, the true reality – the Brahman. Maya is unconscious, Brahman-Atman is conscious. Maya is the literal and the effect, Brahman is the figurative ''Upādāna'' – the principle and the cause. Maya is born, changes, evolves, dies with time, from circumstances, due to invisible principles of nature. Atman-Brahman is eternal, unchanging, invisible principle, unaffected absolute and resplendent consciousness. Maya concept, states Archibald Gough, is "the indifferent aggregate of all the possibilities of emanatory or derived existences, pre-existing with Brahman", just like the possibility of a future tree pre-exists in the seed of the tree.
  
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==Comparison to Western philosophies==
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While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of ''Brahman'' and ''Atman'', they also expound on Brahman as ''saguna Brahman'' – the Brahman with attributes, and ''nirguna Brahman'' – the Brahman without attributes. The ''nirguna Brahman'' is the Brahman as it really is, however, the ''saguna Brahman'' is posited as a means to realizing ''nirguna Brahman'', but the Hinduism schools declare ''saguna Brahman'' to be ultimately illusory. The concept of the ''saguna Brahman'', such as in the form of avatars, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their adhyatmik journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.
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Similarities between Vedanta and Western philosophical traditions have been discussed by many authorities. Due to the colonisation of Asia by the western world, since the late 18th century an exchange of ideas has been taking place between the western world and Asia, which also influenced western religiosity.{{sfn|McMahan|2008}} In 1785 appeared the first western translation of a Sanskrit-text.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=176}} It marked the growing interest in the Indian culture and languages.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=177}} The first translation of Upanishads appeared in two parts in 1801 and 1802,{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=177}} which influenced [[Arthur Schopenhauer]], who called them "the consolation of my life".{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=178}}{{refn|group=note|And called his poodle "Atman".{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=178}}}} Schopenhauer drew explicit parallels between his philosophy, as set out in 'The World as Will and Representation',<ref>Schopenhauer, Arthur. ''The World as Will and Representation''. Translated from the German by EFJ Payne. Dover Publications, vol. 1, chap. 1</ref> and that of the Vedanta philosophy ascribed to Vasya in the work of Sir William Jones.<ref>Jones, Sir William. ''On the Philosophy of the Asiatics''. Sir William Jones. Asiatic Researches, vol. 4, p. 164</ref> Early translations also appeared in other European languages.{{sfn|Renard|2010|p=183-184}}
 
  
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In the 20th century, comparisons between Advaita, western philosophy, and science took a high flight. [[Brian David Josephson]], Welsh physicist, and Nobel Prize laureate says:<ref>[http://www.truedharma.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=4:synthesis-of-science-and-spirituality&catid=3:awaken&Itemid=2 "Synthesis of Science and Spirituality"]</ref>
+
=== Brahman as an ontological concept ===
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{{quote|The Vedanta and the Sankhya hold the key to the laws of the mind and thought process which are co-related to the Quantum Field, i.e. the operation and distribution of particles at atomic and molecular levels.}}
+
Brahman, along with Soul/Self (Atman) are part of the ontological premises of Bharat's philosophy. Different schools of Bharat's philosophy have held widely dissimilar ontologies. Buddhism and Carvaka school of Hinduism deny that there exists anything called "a soul, a self" (individual Atman or Brahman in the cosmic sense), while the orthodox schools of Hinduism, Jainism and Ajivikas hold that there exists "a soul, a self".
  
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===Spinoza===
+
Brahman as well the Atman in every human being (and living being) is considered equivalent and the sole reality, the eternal, self-born, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute in schools of Hinduism such as the Advaita Vedanta and Yoga. Knowing one's own self is knowing the God inside oneself, and this is held as the path to knowing the ontological nature of Brahman (universal Self) as it is identical to the Atman (individual Self). The nature of Atman-Brahman is held in these schools, states Barbara Holdrege, to be as a pure being (''sat''), consciousness (''cit'') and full of bliss (''ananda''), and it is formless, distinctionless, nonchanging and unbounded.
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[[Max Müller]], in his lectures, noted the striking similarities between Vedanta and the system of [[Baruch Spinoza|Spinoza]], saying
 
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{{quote|[T]he Brahman, as conceived in the Upanishads and defined by Sankara, is clearly the same as Spinoza's 'Substantia'."<ref>Three Lectures on the Vedanta Philosophy. F. Max Muller. Kessinger Publishing, 2003. p123</ref>}}
 
  
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[[Helena Blavatsky]], a founder of the [[Theosophical Society]], also compared Spinoza's religious thought to Vedanta, writing in an unfinished essay
+
In theistic schools, in contrast, such as Dvaita Vedanta, the nature of Brahman is held as eternal, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute, while each individual's soul is held as distinct and limited which can at best come close in eternal blissful love of the Brahman (therein viewed as the Godhead).
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{{quote|As to Spinoza’s Deity—natura naturans—conceived in his attributes simply and alone; and the same Deity—as natura naturata or as conceived in the endless series of modifications or correlations, the direct outflowing results from the properties of these attributes, it is the Vedantic Deity pure and simple.<ref>H.P Blavatsky's Collected Writings, Volume 13, pages 308-310. Quest Books</ref>}}
 
  
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The 19th-century German Sanskritist [[Theodore Goldstücker]] was one of the early figures to notice the similarities between the religious conceptions of the Vedanta and those of the Dutch Jewish philosopher Baruch Spinoza, writing that Spinoza's thought was
+
Other schools of Hinduism have their own ontological premises relating to Brahman, reality and nature of existence. Vaisheshikaschool of Hinduism, for example, holds a substantial, realist ontology. The Carvaka school denied Brahman and Atman, and held a materialist ontology.
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{{quote|...&nbsp;so exact a representation of the ideas of the Vedanta, that we might have suspected its founder to have borrowed the fundamental principles of his system from the Hindus, did his biography not satisfy us that he was wholly unacquainted with their doctrines [...] comparing the fundamental ideas of both we should have no difficulty in proving that, had Spinoza been a Hindu, his system would in all probability mark a last phase of the Vedanta philosophy.<ref>Literary Remains of the Late Professor Theodore Goldstucker, W. H. Allen, 1879. p32.</ref><ref>The Westminster Review, Volumes 78-79, Baldwin, Cradock, and Joy, 1862. p1862</ref>}}
 
  
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==See also==
+
=== Brahman as an axiological concept ===
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*[[Monistic idealism]]
+
Brahman and Atman are key concepts to Hindu theories of axiology: ethics and aesthetics. ''Ananda'' (bliss), state Michael Myers and other scholars, has axiological importance to the concept of Brahman, as the universal inner harmony. Some scholars equate Brahman with the highest value, in an axiological sense.
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*[[List of teachers of Vedanta]]
 
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*[[Self-consciousness (Vedanta)]]
 
  
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==Notes==
+
The axiological concepts of Brahman and Atman is central to Hindu theory of values. A statement such as ‘I am Brahman’, states Shaw, means ‘I am related to everything,’ and this is the underlying premise for compassion for others in Hinduism, for each individual's welfare, peace, or happiness depends on others, including other beings and nature at large, and vice versa.Tietge states that even in non-dual schools of Hinduism where Brahman and Atman are treated ontologically equivalent, the theory of values emphasize individual agent and ethics. In these schools of Hinduism, states Tietge, the theory of action are derived from and centered in compassion for the other, and not egotistical concern for the self.
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{{reflist|group=note|2}}
 
  
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==References==
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The axiological theory of values emerges implicitly from the concepts of Brahman and Atman, states Bauer. The aesthetics of human experience and ethics are one consequence of self-knowledge in Hinduism, one resulting from the perfect, timeless unification of one's soul with the Brahman, the soul of everyone, everything and all eternity, wherein the pinnacle of human experience is not dependent on an afterlife, but pure consciousness in the present life itself. It does not assume that an individual is weak nor does it presume that he is inherently evil, but the opposite: human soul and its nature is held as fundamentally unqualified, faultless, beautiful, blissful, ethical, compassionate and good. Ignorance is to assume it evil, liberation is to know its eternal, expansive, pristine, happy and good nature. The axiological premises in the Hindu thought and Bharat's philosophies in general, states Nikam, is to elevate the individual, exalting the innate potential of man, where the reality of his being is the objective reality of the universe. The Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizes Nikam, hold that the individual has the same essence and reality as the objective universe, and this essence is the finest essence; the individual soul is the universal soul, and Atman is the same reality and the same aesthetics as the Brahman.
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{{Reflist|2}}
 
  
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==Sources==
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=== Brahman as a soteriological concept: Moksha ===
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Main article: Moksha
  
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===Published sources===
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The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of moksha. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss), because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone.
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{{columns-list|2|
 
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{{refend}}
 
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}}
 
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===Web-sources===
 
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{{reflist|group=web|2}}
 
  
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==Further reading==
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The theistic sub-school such as Dvaita Vedanta of Hinduism, starts with the same premises, but adds the premise that individual souls and Brahman are distinct, and thereby reaches entirely different conclusions where Brahman is conceptualized in a manner similar to God in other major world religions. The theistic schools assert that moksha is the loving, eternal union or nearness of one's soul with the distinct and separate Brahman (Vishnu, Shivaor equivalent henotheism). Brahman, in these sub-schools of Hinduism is considered the highest perfection of existence, which every soul journeys towards in its own way for moksha.
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{{Wikiquote}}
 
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* ''[http://www.vedantaworld.org Vedanta Treatise: The Eternities]'' by [[Swami Parthasarathy]]
 
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* ''The System of Vedanta'' by [[Paul Deussen]]. 1912. Reprint 2007.
 
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* ''Forgotten Truth: The Primordial Tradition'' by [[Huston Smith]]
 
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* ''Theology After Vedanta'' by [[Francis X. Clooney]]
 
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* ''A History of Early Vedanta Philosophy'' by [[Hajime Nakamura]]
 
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* ''Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies'' and "Vedanta Sutras of Nārāyana Guru" by [[Karl Harrington Potter|Karl Potter]] and Sibajiban Bhattachārya
 
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* ''[http://www.sriaurobindoashram.info/Contents.aspx?ParentCategoryName=_StaticContent/SriAurobindoAshram/-09%20E-Library/-01%20Works%20of%20Sri%20Aurobindo/-12_The%20Upanishad_Volume-12 The Upanishads]'' by [[Sri Aurobindo]], [[Sri Aurobindo Ashram]], [[Pondicherry (city)|Pondicherry]], 1972.
 
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* ''Choice Upanishads'' by [[Swami Parthasarathy]]
 
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* ''[http://www.vedanta.com Vedanta: A Simple Introduction]'' by [[Pravrajika Vrajaprana]]
 
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* ''[http://www.brahmavidya.org Swami Bhoomānanda Tirtha]'' [[Narayanashrama Tapovanam]]
 
  
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Latest revision as of 14:46, 25 June 2024

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Vedanta (Samskrit: वेदांतम्) or Uttara Mimamsa is one of the six Darshana shastras or schools of philosophy that have originated from the spiritual experience of the sages of ancient India. Subsequently, these philosophical concepts were elaborated into systems of thought and explained in terms of reason and logic.

Vedanta - Darsana - The Path to Transcedence and Self-realization

One of the living systems of Indian philosophy, the Vedanta, has become widely studied in recent centuries, as to some Western intellectuals it became a solace and a solution to the vexed problems of the world. They consider that it offers the central principles of the universal religion, which, swayed the thought and life of Indians through ages of time. Primarily the word Vedanta stood for Upanishads; later its scope widened to include all thoughts developed out of the Upanishads[1]. 

In this article, the term Godhead is used in the same spirit as "Bhagvaan” or "Parabrahman", intrinsic aspect of God analogous to waterness in water.

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

Philosophy is the search for an experience of Reality. The subject-matter of Indian philosophy, however, is not the entire Reality. It is more about the true nature of the Self. One of the postulates of Indian philosophy is that the Atman, loosely translated as soul in abrahmic texts, is the core of Self and its intrinsic nature full of Ananda. The realization of the true and native nature of the Self is another name for moksha. Vedanta adopted ideas from other Darshanas such as Yoga and Nyaya, and, over time, became the most prominent of the Astika Darshanas, influencing the sampradayas or diverse traditions within it. There are at least ten schools of Vedanta, of which Advaita Vedanta, Visishtadvaita, Dvaita and Bhedabheda are the best known.

The Self to be realized is usually confused with the Ahamkara or the individual ego that we are aware of. We mistake the ego for the true Self and that is the cause of our suffering. The ignorance of the true nature of the Self, which is free from all impurities, sorrows, etc., is the cause of bondage. This ignorance is called by different names. Nyaya calls it mithya jnana (illusory knowledge). Samkhya calls it lack of discernment between Purusha and Prakrti. Advaita siddhanta calls it Maya (illusion). Self-realization is achieved either through self-culture, or as in some forms of Vedanta, through divine grace.[2]

All the Indian philosophical systems exhibit a twofold unity of outlook. There is first the “spiritual unity” in their outlook. This is brought out clearly by the common philosophical ideal of moksha, which is a spiritual experience, not an intellectual apprehension or an occult vision or a physical ecstasy. The second is the moral unity in outlook. All the systems, though they give differing accounts of moksha, are at one in holding that it cannot be attained by mere intellectual study.[2]

As per recent Oxford University publications[3], there are five great unsolved questions in Philosophy which are:

  1. Do we have free will (actions guided by us or are predetermined)?
  2. Can we know (knowledge) anything at all (skepticism regarding epistemology)?
  3. Who am “I”?(fundamental nature of human beings)
  4. What is death (not physical death but as a psychological/sentient being)?
  5. What would “global justice” look like?

The essential point in the above first four questions is that these questions are directly connected with consciousness.

व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

The word Vedanta is a compound word made up of two Sanskrit words: ‘Veda’ and  ‘Anta’ meaning वेदानाम् अन्तः। or 'end of Vedas' and indeed, many of these texts are found at the end of each of the four Vedas. In Shabdakalpadhruma[4], Hemachandra mentions Vedanta to be Upanishads.

वेदान्तो नाम उपनिषत्-प्रमाणं तदुपकारीणि शारीरकसूत्रादीनि च । इति परमहंसपरिव्राजकाचार्य्य श्रीसदानन्द-योगीन्द्रविरचितवेदान्तसारः ॥
Vedanta signifies the Upanishads, the means of right knowledge (with respect to Self) and the Sharirika sutras and other (works) helpful in understanding them, as per Vedantasara (text) composed by Sadananda Yogindra Acharya.

At the end or culmination of the Vedas, in the sense that they embody the highest philosophical knowledge of the Vedas, Upanishads, are also called Uttara Mimamsa. Vedanta is also called Uttara Mimamsa, or the 'latter enquiry' or 'higher enquiry', and is often paired with Purva Mimamsa which deals with the previous part of the Vedas, namely the Brahmanas. Thus, both Purva and Uttara Mimamsa are directly based on the Vedas. Purva Mimasa refers to the 'former enquiry' or 'primary enquiry' in the Brahmana granthas, is also called Karma Mimamsa, or is simply called as Mimamsa. It deals with explanations of the Karma-kanda or rituals part of the Vedic mantras in Samhita and Brahmanas, while Uttara Mimamsa, also called as Vedanta or Jnana Mimamsa, deals with the philosophical knowledge of Upanishads or the Jnana-kanda of the Vedas.[1][5]

Aims and Characteristics of Vedanta

The philosophy of Vedanta, like all other systems of thought, is an attempt to clearly understand and offer an explanation of all things (vastu vichara) in the world as it appears to us in our knowledge.

सर्व्वस्यापि वस्तुविचारोद्देशपूर्व्वकत्वात् प्रतिज्ञातं वेदान्तं नामतो निर्दिशति वेदान्त इति ।[4]

It is an attempt to determine the nature of the ultimate reality and to understand how it presents before us a world of manifoldness, in order to clearly understand the place and destiny of man in the world system. Vedanta philosophy considers two very important questions: the theoretical determination of the nature of substance or reality underlying experience and of the origin of knowledge, and the ethical problem of duty and the ultimate ideal of human life. Both these questions are thoroughly discussed and solutions are offered in the system.

Nature of Texts

The Vedanta includes the class of literature under the heading Prasthana Trayi, namely the Upanishads, Brahmasutras or Sharirakasutras and Bhagavadgita. It essentially refers to the philosophy pronounced in the Upanishads, the final parts of the Vedas summarized in the Brahmasutras of Badarayana. All the diverse schools of Vedanta claim to propound the Upanishadic teaching. The Upanishads may be regarded as the end of Vedas in different senses:

  1. The Samhita, Brahmana and the Upanishads collectively form the Vedas. The Upanishads discuss the philosophical aspects of the Vedas and with respect to their being at end of the Brahmana and Aranyaka texts they are termed Vedanta.
  2. In respect to the their time of study, the Upanishads were studied the last, during the last two ashramas in a man's life namely the Vanaprastha and Sannyasa.
  3. The Upanishads mark the culmination of Vedic thought.[1]

Style of Composition of Vedanta Texts

A major portion of the Vedanta literature is composed in ‘Sutra’ format, or aphorisms, for example - अथातो ब्रह्मजिज्ञासा। A ‘Sutra’ is a short statement/phrase/rule/letters which is capable of being remembered, in the oral tradition. The brevity of the Sutra, while making it easy to remember, provides the commentator opportunity to comment on that and draw his own interpretation. The commentaries are called as “Bhashya”, and the commentators ‘Bhashyakara’. Many a time, the commentator composed his own shlokas, for easy memorization, and provided his own commentary on what he has composed.

Goal of Life

All activity in the universe, of man and of every other living being, if analyzed, will be found to have for its object one of these three:- to be (to exist), to know, and to be happy. The goal of all thinking beings is

  1. to exist always and everywhere
  2. to know always and all things
  3. to be happy always and under all conditions

Thus the innermost aim of man is to exist indefinitely, to have knowledge and happiness, absolutely unlimited by any restrictions of time or space. The seed to realize this aim of man is found in the instinctive abhorrence of death / suffering (opposite of existence), ignorance (opposite of knowing) and misery (the opposite of happiness). The three characteristics of existence, knowledge and happiness are thus essential to the very nature of conscious life and the attainment of a perfect state of these three characteristics is a supreme state beyond any kind of known limitation.[6]

Person, Thing and The Supreme Entity

Sristhi or Creation is found to consist of entities which are either persons or things which have the characteristics of nama (name) and rupa (form). The words ‘organic’ and ‘inorganic’, ‘conscious’ and ‘unconscious’, ‘subject and object’, are often used instead of 'persons' and 'things'. However, here we allude to the terms person and things. Both the person and things have three inseparable characteristics:-

- A person: He is, he knows, he enjoys.

- A thing: It is, it is known, it is enjoyed.

The common characteristic therefore of a person and of a thing is that he or it is (i.e., he/it exists). The Vedanta teaches us the existence of a third entity which transcends and comprehends all creation and whose characteristics therefore are that it is, it knows and is known, enjoys and is enjoyed. Such a third entity is a Supreme Entity and has specific set of attributes, chiefly of transcendence. The highest goal of human life is the realization in actual experience of that Supreme Entity. This realization can be made possible only in successive stages of practical training. Note that the word ‘God’, in ordinary parlance, connotes a ‘personality’, ever so Supreme and Transcendent, while the word ‘Brahman’ signifies that Transcendent Supreme Being who is strictly impersonal.[6]

Necessity for Right Understanding

Vedantic teachings, which were treasured as the highest and sublimest of truths reserved to be imparted only to the qualified and the tested, are in the recent centuries thrown broadcast so that they have become the common property of the worst sinner and the noblest saint. According to our Sastras the only standpoint from which we can really solve and realize the relationship between the subject or perceiver and the object or perceived is when we transcend both. No amount of reasoning can enable us to arrive at such a stage, for all reasoning assumes more or less the stable existence of the reasoning perceiver and of the perceived as well.[7]

Thus, Vedanta teaches us to understand the concept of 'reality or stable existence' unravelling the relationship between the person and thing. Philosophers have either denied the existence of the person, thing or relationship between them.

- Some believe that the perceiver is a constant persistent individuality (Atman) and the universe is an everchanging restless mass of phenomena cognized by the perceiver as the objects of his perception, thus objects have no independent existence without the perceiver (Jagat-shunyavadins).

- Another set of philosophers assume the permanent existence of the perceived universe and seek to analyze the perceiver. The perceiver is not a constant individuality and has no independent existence without the perceived. Just like the water in the river is always flowing and is therefore impermanent and ever-changing, so also the Atman is only a notional entity - a mere void - an everchanging succession of perceptions of phenomena (Atma-shunyavadin).

These two sets of philosophers—the Jagatshunyavadis (Idealists) and the Atmashunyavadis (Materialists) — thus try to solve the relationship between the perceiver and the perceived by denying the existence of the one or the other.

- A third set of philosophers (Sankhyavadins) realize there is essential difference and incompatibility of the perceiver and the perceived. The perceiver is conscious, unchanging and unchangeable in essence. The perceived is unconscious and ever-changing. All sensation is the result of contact between these two. All pain and misery is the result of this contact whether it follows immediately or after a short-lived appearance of pleasure. Once we realize that the perceiver is not and cannot be in any way related to the perceived, we are free from pain and to that end must all activities be directed. This denial of relationship between the perceiver and the perceived, this insistence on their absolute distinctness, is the basis of the Samkhya school of philosophy.[7]

Vedanta thus, studies the above aspects in detail, as different schools of thought have proposed a different interpretation of reality and creation of the universe.

Right Knowledge

The great contribution of the Nyaya system is its elaborate and critical theories of investigation. All the problems pertaining to the theory of knowledge have been stated with remarkable clarity in an analytical fashion. The several instruments of knowledge or Pramanas, together with the possible pitfalls and fallacies have been set forth in a lucid manner. The Nyaya scheme of sixteen Padarthas or categories has supplied the Indian thinkers, through centuries, with the means of discriminating, quickly and surely the true from the false inferences making it an indispensable shastra to the study of all other systems.[2]

Traditional Vedanta considers scriptural evidence, Vedas or Shabda pramāna, as the most authentic means of knowledge, while perception, or pratyaksa, and logical inference, or Anumana, are considered to be subordinate (but valid). Vedanta rejects ritual in favor of renunciation, which makes it irreconcilable with Mimamsa.

Schools of Vedanta

As discussed in the previous section, Badarayana's Brahmasutras attempted to set forth the unanimous teachings of the Upanishads and defend them against possible and actual objections. His sutras being brief, were open to different interpretations. Various commentaries thus came to be written to elaborate the doctrines of each Vedantic thought in their own light. Each of them tried to justify its position as the only one consistent with the revealed texts (Shrutis) and the sutras. The author of each of the chief commentaries (bhashya) became the founder of a particular school of Vedanta.[5] We have various schools of Vedanta advocated by Sankaracharya, Ramanujacharya, Madhavacharya and later day proponents such as Vallabhacharya, Nimbarka, and Chaitanya Prabhu. The schools are named after the relation they see between Atman and Brahman and according to [5][8]

  1. Advaita Vedanta (Absolute Non-dualism) of Sri Adi Sankaracharya, there is no difference between jivatman and Brahman.
  2. Dvaita (Absolute Dualism) of Sri Madhavacharya, the jivatman is totally different from Brahman. Even though he is similar to brahman, he is not identical.
  3. Vishishtadvaita (Qualified Non-dualism) of Sri Ramanujacharya, the jivatman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical.
  4. Shuddhadvaita (Pure Non-dualism) of Sri Vallabhacharya, the jivatman and Brahman are like sparks and fire, Jagat is real and the jivatman is clouded by nescience (avidya) due to Maya.
  5. Dvaitadvaita or Bhedabheda (Non-dualism in Dualism) admitted by scholars like Bhaskara and Nimbarka[5][8], Bhartrprapancha[9] Brahman is both different (bheda) and not different (abheda) from Jagat and the individual jivatman. Bhedabheda siddhanta upholds that the ultimate reality, as taught in the Upanishads, will be neither a bare unity not a mere plurality but a vital synthesis of both. This philosophy was upheld by scholars such as Bhaskara, Yadava, Nimbarka and Chaitanya belonging to different areas of India with slight differences in their postulates.
    1. Aupadhika Bhedabheda (Non-dualism in Dualism) of Bhaskara upholds the idea of Brahman as Absolute and the relative and distinguishes between chetana and achetana in the prapancha.
    2. Achintya-bhedabheda (Inconceivable difference and non-difference) of Sri Chaitanya Prabhu, advocates a simultaneous oneness and multiplicity of Brahman.
    3. Svabhavika-bhedabheda of Nimbarka, Yadavaprakasa and Bhartrprapancha (as per P. N. Srinivachari)[10] there is a natural difference between Brahman and individual Atman: Brahman is the cause and is the ruler. Atman is not omnipotent it is the effect and it attains Brahman. There is the natural non-difference: Brahman pervades the universe (the effect) like clay in the jar.[11]

Other than the Advaita school (and Vijnanabhikshu's Avibhaga-lakshanadvaita), every school of Vedanta recognizes the necessity of devotion or Bhakti in addition to knowledge as the means to the attainment of moksha or freedom from bondage.

Sivananda gives the following explanation:

Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.

Common Tenets of Darshanas and Vedanta

All the darshanik systems believe that the universe is a cosmos, but not a chaos. They postulate a central moral purpose as governing the universe. The universe is a moral order. There is a point in human life and purpose in the heart of the universe. The good that we do in this life is not without its reward. The evil takes its due toll from man. The universe is law abiding to the core. Moral life has its own purpose. As a corollary to this the systems postulate rebirth as well as pre-existence. They subscribe to the inevitable law of karma. Karma points out that the individual is responsible for his acts and not a mysterious fate. The conditions of life are determined but not the will of the agent. The law of Karma applies to the conditions that are being determined and not to the agent. Vedanta envisages the concept of Moksha as the possibility of liberation from bondage in Karma cycle. Each school differs in their presentation of the Supreme Entity and the cause of delusion and attachment of an individual in this world.[12]

The chief subject matter of Vedanta in Brahma sutras involves ब्रह्मनिरूपणम् । meaning "revealing Brahman." The schools of Vedanta seek to answer questions about the relation between Atman and Brahman, and the relation between Brahman and Jagat, the world. Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:

  • Concept of Brahman - Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the Prasthanatrayi. It involves an understanding of Reality, the ultimate Truth, knowledge of Brahman (Self), experience of consciousness, relationship and causality of man and universe, Avidya (ignorance), Maya (illusion) etc. All schools support this Supreme Entity though they differ in the way they express the qualities regarding Brahman.
  • Concept of Atman - Atman is the transcendental background of both individual self and non-self, expressed as self or consciousness. The same reality is called from the subjective side as Atman and from the objective side as Brahman and both terms are used as synonyms.[5] All systems explain Atman, Jivatman, to support plurality of beings.
  • Concept of Karma - Actions or karma help prepare the mind (Chittashuddhi) for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards are renounced. Actions, knowledge and devotion are three paths to attain knowledge of the self. Karma is intricately related to rewards of action such as Papa (demerits) and Punya (merits) which are adrstha or unseen effects.
  • Concept of Dharma - Atman can be realized by one who does practice self-control, desirelessness, and concentration of mind. Moral purity is the indispensable pre-requisite of knowledge of atman. Karma is not excluded from moral life.
  • Concept of Punarjanma - Bondage is subjection to Saṃsāra due to attachment to results or fruits of actions. Death and rebirth, is cyclical and results from attachment to karmaphala and Nishkama Karma leads one to escape this Punarjama cycle. Punarjanma is again a fundamental concept widely accepted and discussed in many ancient Indian texts.
  • Concept of Moksha - Liberation is deliverance from the punarjanma cycle leads to Moksha. It is regarded as the highest aim of human life.

To attain the highest goal of human life, the successive stages in the realization are summarized as[7]:

  • Realization of the distinction between ‘person’ and ‘thing’.
  • Realization of the identity between ‘thing' and the Supreme Entity.
  • Realization of the identity between ‘person’ and the Supreme Entity.
  • Realization of the absolute truth/reality of the Supreme Entity alone, and not ‘person’ or ‘thing’ as such.

All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of Satkāryavāda, which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support Parinamavada, the idea that the world is a real transformation (Parinama) of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the Brahma Sutras also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins". In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, Vivartavada, which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (vivarta) transformation of its cause, Brahman.

Differences Among Vedanta Sampradayas

The concept of Brahman, its nature and its relationship with Atman and the observed universe, is a major point of difference between the various sub-schools of the Vedanta school of Hinduism. The concepts of Nirguna and Saguna Brahman, underwent profound development with the thoughts of Adi Shankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta, Ramanujacharya's Vishishtadvaita Vedanta, and Madhvacharya's Dvaita Vedanta.

Bhedābheda

Bhedabheda (bheda-abheda), which means "difference and non-difference" refers to a siddhanta which admits that individual self (jīvātman) is both different and not different from Brahman. This siddhanta goes back to vedic times with thinkers like Asmarathya, Audulomin and Kasakrsna offering a dualistic cum monistic interpretation of the Upanishadic passages.[13] According to Nakamura and Dasgupta, the Brahmasutras reflect a Bhedabheda point of view, the most influential school of Vedanta before Shankara.[14] All Bhedābheda schools share the understanding of the relation between individual self (jīvātman) and Brahman as one of part and whole; the doctrine that the phenomenal world is a real transformation of Brahman (Pariṇāmavāda); and the doctrine that liberation can only be attained by means of a combination of knowledge and ritual action (Jñānakarmasamuccayavāda), not by knowledge alone. All Bhedābhedavādins maintain the reality of the phenomenal world and the multiplicity of individual selves.[14] Bhakti found a place in later proponents of this school such as Nimbarka and Sri Chaitanya. While Bhaskara insists on the essential unity of the jiva and Brahman and Yadavaprakasa treats Ishvara and jiva as the two essential aspects of the absolute, Nimbarka refers to the jiva as a distinct entity that derives its being from Brahman and depends on it.

Aupadhika Bhedabheda: Bhaskara, accepts the three realities: Brahman or Ishvara, jiva and jagat (world). Brahman is the cause of the world, its creator, supporter, and destroyer. Brahman is both the material and efficient cause of the world and is known only from scriptural authority. Bhaskara strongly held that the world is a transformation (parinama) of one absolute abstract unity or Brahman (Brahmaparinamavada) who is real, original and natural form into many forms by means of limiting conditions (upadhi) as the principle of self differentiation at the time of creation. Hence, the difference though real is adventitious or aupadhika as there is difference and non-difference due to limiting conditions. During liberation and dissolution the self and the world are completely identical with Brahman. He equates Brahman with Vishnu, Narayana, and Vaasudeva.[13]

Svabhavika-bhedabheda: Nimbarka, Nimbaditya or Niyamananda a Telugu Brahmana, revived the philosophy of earlier bhedabhedavadins such as Ashmarathya, Bhartrprapancha, and Yadavaprakasa along with his amendments and modifications. Also called Sanakasampradaya of Vaishnavism, it is greatly indebted to Ramanujacharya. Notably Nimbarka refers to the Shri and Brahma sampradayas of Ramanujacharya and Madhavacharya respectively.[5] Nimbarka does not regard Brahman as purely formless and distinction-less as Bhaskara does. Bhaskara's Brahman is nirvisesha (closer to Advaita siddhanta), a pure unity or identity, but Nimbarka's Brahman is savisesha, always having internal natural differences, hence the school is called Svabhavika-bhedabheda. Jiva-jagat are never absolutely identical with Brahman (as in Advaita vedanta) and always retain their own individuality and separateness even during liberation and dissolution. Nimbarka regarded that the grace of Krishna generates devotion.[13] This school is also referred to as Dvaitadvaita also.

Achintya-Bheda-Abheda: Founded by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Achintya-Bheda-Abheda represents the philosophy of inconceivable one-ness and difference. The tradition of Achintya-bhedabheda is also commonly known as Gaudiya Vaishnavism, common in West Bengal elaborated by Baladeva. It is described as Achintya or inconceivable because the identity in difference is essentially indescribable and unthinkable due to the inconceivable power of Brahman or Shrikrishna. The teachings of Chaitanya are based mainly on the Bhagavata. Concept of Achintya is accepted to reconcile the apparent contradictions in the nature of Brahman. Jivas are innumerable and remain distinct even in liberation. They emanate from Brahman like rays from the sun and are absolutely dependent on Him. Bhakti is the sole means of liberation.[5]

Shuddhādvaita

Shuddhadvaita was propounded by Vallabhacharya, a Telugu Brahmana. This system also identifies Bhakti as the only means of liberation, 'to go to Goloka' (lit., the world of cows; the Sankrit word 'go', 'cow', also means 'star'), through "Pushtimarga" (the path of God's grace). The world is said to be the sport (līlā) of Krishna, who is Sat-Chit-Ananda or, "eternal bliss mind". According to this school Maya or the world (jagat) is not unreal (‘jagat mithya’) as in the Advaita of Shankaracharya, but the entire universe is real and is subtly Brahman only. Brahman is independent reality and is identified with Shrikrishna. His essence is Sat-chit- ananda. Jiva and jagat are the real manifestations of Brahman and the relationship is that of whole and parts. Vallabha differs from Shankaracharya in that he proposes the Maya or Avidya is the power of Brahman through which he manifests the world but it is neither an illusion nor an error. It is real manifestation, Avikṛta Pariṇāmavāda, where the universe is a natural emanation from Brahman which does not involve a notion or change (parinama) and is not an unreal appearance (vivarta). The individual soul (Jiva or jivatma) and Brahman are in "essence" not different, like sparks and fire. Jiva is both a ‘doer’ and ‘enjoyer’. It is atomic in size but it pervades the whole body through its essence of intelligence (like scent of sandalwood, even if it can't be seen). Vallabhacharya says that the Jiva is not Supreme, nor it is Sat-chit-ananda (Existence-knowledge-bliss Absolute) being clouded by the force of nescience (‘avidya’ or Maya ) and is therefore devoid of bliss (ananda).[5]

Advaita Vedānta

Advaita Vedanta holds that Shuddha-chaitanya or Pure Consciousness has three forms

  1. as associated with (that is, manifested as) the subject or knower (or Consciousness limited by the mind), the Jiva (pramatr) - Pramatr-chaitanyam
  2. as associated with the object (Vishaya) - Vishaya-chaitanyam
  3. as associated with the mental state/antahkarana (pramana) - Pramana-chaitanyam

Perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the sense organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.[15] Advaita Vedanta expounds that Brahman is the sole unchanging reality,[16] it is pure being, non-dual, immutable, eternal and devoid of all attributes. , no limited individual souls nor a separate unlimited cosmic soul, rather all souls, all of existence, across all space and time, is one and the same. The universe and the soul inside each being is Brahman, and the universe and the soul outside each being is Brahman, according to Advaita Vedanta. Brahman is the origin and end of all things, material and adhyatmik. Brahman is the root source of everything that exists. He states that Brahman can neither be taught nor perceived (as an object of knowledge), but it can be learned and realized by all human beings.[17] The goal of Advaita Vedanta is to realize that one's Self (Atman) gets obscured by ignorance and false-identification ("Avidya"). When Avidya is removed, the Atman (Soul, Self inside a person) is realized as identical with Brahman.[18] The Brahman is not outside, separate, dual entity, the Brahman is within each person, states Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism. Brahman is all that is eternal, unchanging and that is truly exists.[16] This view is stated in this school in many different forms, such as "Ekam sat" ("Truth is one"), and all is Brahman.

The universe does not simply come from Brahman, it is Brahman. According to Adi Shankara, a proponent of Advaita Vedanta, the knowledge of Brahman that shruti provides cannot be obtained in any other means besides self inquiry.[19] In Advaita Vedanta, nirguna Brahman, that is the Brahman without attributes, is held to be the ultimate and sole reality.[16] Consciousness is not a property of Brahman but its very nature.

Vishishtadvaita

Vishishtadvaita was propounded by Rāmānuja (1017–1137 CE) and says that the jīvātman is a part of Brahman, and hence is similar, but not identical. The main difference from Advaita is that in Visishtadvaita, the Brahman is asserted to have attributes (Saguna brahman), including the individual conscious souls and matter. Brahman, matter and the individual souls are distinct but mutually inseparable entities. This school propounds Bhakti or devotion to God visualized as Vishnu to be the path to liberation. Māyā is seen as the creative power of God.[20]Template:Refn

Dvaita

Dvaita was propounded by Madhwāchārya (1199–1278 CE). It is also referred to as tatvavādā - The Philosophy of Reality. It identifies God with Brahman completely, and in turn with Vishnu or his various incarnations like Krishna, Narasimha, Srinivāsa etc. In that sense it is also known as sat-vaishnava philosophy to differentiate from the Vishishtadvaita school known by sri-vaishnavism. It regards Brahman, all individual souls (jīvātmans) and matter as eternal and mutually separate entities. This school also advocates Bhakti as the route to sattvic liberation whereas hatred (Dvesha)-literally 'twoness') and indifference towards the Lord will lead to eternal hell and eternal bondage respectively. Liberation is the state of attaining maximum joy or sorrow, which is awarded to individual souls (at the end of their sādhana), based on the souls' inherent and natural disposition towards good or evil. The achintya-adbhuta shakti (the immeasurable power) of Lord Vishnu is seen as the efficient cause of the universe and the primordial matter or prakrti is the material cause. Dvaita also propounds that all action is performed by the Lord energizing every soul from within, awarding the results to the soul but Himself not affected in the least by the results.[20] 

Brahman of Dvaita is a concept similar to God in major world religions. Dvaita holds that the individual soul is dependent on God, but distinct.

Dvaita propounds Tattvavada which means understanding differences between Tattvas (significant properties) of entities within the universal substrate as follows:[citation needed]

  1. Jîva-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the soul and Vishnu
  2. Jada-Îshvara-bheda — difference between the insentient and Vishnu
  3. Mitha-jîva-bheda — difference between any two souls
  4. Jada-jîva-bheda — difference between insentient and the soul
  5. Mitha-jada-bheda — difference between any two insentients

Discussion

Brahman as a metaphysical concept

Brahman is the key metaphysical concept in various schools of Hindu philosophy. It is the theme in its diverse discussions to the two central questions of metaphysics: what is ultimately real, and are there principles applying to everything that is real?Brahman is the ultimate "eternally, constant" reality, while the observed universe is different kind of reality but one which is "temporary, changing" Māyā in various orthodox Hindu schools. Māyā pre-exists and co-exists with Brahman – the Ultimate Reality, The Highest Universal, the Cosmic Principles.

In addition to the concept of Brahman, Hindu metaphysics includes the concept of Atman – or soul, self – which is also considered ultimately real. The various schools of Hinduism, particularly the dual and non-dual schools, differ on the nature of Atman, whether it is distinct from Brahman, or same as Brahman. Those that consider Brahman and Atman as distinct are theistic, and Dvaita Vedanta and later Nyaya schools illustrate this premise. Those that consider Brahman and Atman as same are monist or pantheistic, and Advaita Vedanta, later Samkhya and Yoga schools illustrate this metaphysical premise. In schools that equate Brahman with Atman, Brahman is the sole, ultimate reality. The predominant teaching in the Upanishads is the adhyatmik identity of soul within each human being, with the soul of every other human being and living being, as well as with the supreme, ultimate reality Brahman.

In the metaphysics of the major schools of Hinduism, Maya is perceived reality, one that does not reveal the hidden principles, the true reality – the Brahman. Maya is unconscious, Brahman-Atman is conscious. Maya is the literal and the effect, Brahman is the figurative Upādāna – the principle and the cause. Maya is born, changes, evolves, dies with time, from circumstances, due to invisible principles of nature. Atman-Brahman is eternal, unchanging, invisible principle, unaffected absolute and resplendent consciousness. Maya concept, states Archibald Gough, is "the indifferent aggregate of all the possibilities of emanatory or derived existences, pre-existing with Brahman", just like the possibility of a future tree pre-exists in the seed of the tree.

While Hinduism sub-schools such as Advaita Vedanta emphasize the complete equivalence of Brahman and Atman, they also expound on Brahman as saguna Brahman – the Brahman with attributes, and nirguna Brahman – the Brahman without attributes. The nirguna Brahman is the Brahman as it really is, however, the saguna Brahman is posited as a means to realizing nirguna Brahman, but the Hinduism schools declare saguna Brahman to be ultimately illusory. The concept of the saguna Brahman, such as in the form of avatars, is considered in these schools of Hinduism to be a useful symbolism, path and tool for those who are still on their adhyatmik journey, but the concept is finally cast aside by the fully enlightened.

Brahman as an ontological concept

Brahman, along with Soul/Self (Atman) are part of the ontological premises of Bharat's philosophy. Different schools of Bharat's philosophy have held widely dissimilar ontologies. Buddhism and Carvaka school of Hinduism deny that there exists anything called "a soul, a self" (individual Atman or Brahman in the cosmic sense), while the orthodox schools of Hinduism, Jainism and Ajivikas hold that there exists "a soul, a self".

Brahman as well the Atman in every human being (and living being) is considered equivalent and the sole reality, the eternal, self-born, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute in schools of Hinduism such as the Advaita Vedanta and Yoga. Knowing one's own self is knowing the God inside oneself, and this is held as the path to knowing the ontological nature of Brahman (universal Self) as it is identical to the Atman (individual Self). The nature of Atman-Brahman is held in these schools, states Barbara Holdrege, to be as a pure being (sat), consciousness (cit) and full of bliss (ananda), and it is formless, distinctionless, nonchanging and unbounded.

In theistic schools, in contrast, such as Dvaita Vedanta, the nature of Brahman is held as eternal, unlimited, innately free, blissful Absolute, while each individual's soul is held as distinct and limited which can at best come close in eternal blissful love of the Brahman (therein viewed as the Godhead).

Other schools of Hinduism have their own ontological premises relating to Brahman, reality and nature of existence. Vaisheshikaschool of Hinduism, for example, holds a substantial, realist ontology. The Carvaka school denied Brahman and Atman, and held a materialist ontology.

Brahman as an axiological concept

Brahman and Atman are key concepts to Hindu theories of axiology: ethics and aesthetics. Ananda (bliss), state Michael Myers and other scholars, has axiological importance to the concept of Brahman, as the universal inner harmony. Some scholars equate Brahman with the highest value, in an axiological sense.

The axiological concepts of Brahman and Atman is central to Hindu theory of values. A statement such as ‘I am Brahman’, states Shaw, means ‘I am related to everything,’ and this is the underlying premise for compassion for others in Hinduism, for each individual's welfare, peace, or happiness depends on others, including other beings and nature at large, and vice versa.Tietge states that even in non-dual schools of Hinduism where Brahman and Atman are treated ontologically equivalent, the theory of values emphasize individual agent and ethics. In these schools of Hinduism, states Tietge, the theory of action are derived from and centered in compassion for the other, and not egotistical concern for the self.

The axiological theory of values emerges implicitly from the concepts of Brahman and Atman, states Bauer. The aesthetics of human experience and ethics are one consequence of self-knowledge in Hinduism, one resulting from the perfect, timeless unification of one's soul with the Brahman, the soul of everyone, everything and all eternity, wherein the pinnacle of human experience is not dependent on an afterlife, but pure consciousness in the present life itself. It does not assume that an individual is weak nor does it presume that he is inherently evil, but the opposite: human soul and its nature is held as fundamentally unqualified, faultless, beautiful, blissful, ethical, compassionate and good. Ignorance is to assume it evil, liberation is to know its eternal, expansive, pristine, happy and good nature. The axiological premises in the Hindu thought and Bharat's philosophies in general, states Nikam, is to elevate the individual, exalting the innate potential of man, where the reality of his being is the objective reality of the universe. The Upanishads of Hinduism, summarizes Nikam, hold that the individual has the same essence and reality as the objective universe, and this essence is the finest essence; the individual soul is the universal soul, and Atman is the same reality and the same aesthetics as the Brahman.

Brahman as a soteriological concept: Moksha

Main article: Moksha

The orthodox schools of Hinduism, particularly Vedanta, Samkhya and Yoga schools, focus on the concept of Brahman and Atman in their discussion of moksha. The Advaita Vedanta holds there is no being/non-being distinction between Atman and Brahman. The knowledge of Atman (Self-knowledge) is synonymous to the knowledge of Brahman inside the person and outside the person. Furthermore, the knowledge of Brahman leads to sense of oneness with all existence, self-realization, indescribable joy, and moksha (freedom, bliss), because Brahman-Atman is the origin and end of all things, the universal principle behind and at source of everything that exists, consciousness that pervades everything and everyone.

The theistic sub-school such as Dvaita Vedanta of Hinduism, starts with the same premises, but adds the premise that individual souls and Brahman are distinct, and thereby reaches entirely different conclusions where Brahman is conceptualized in a manner similar to God in other major world religions. The theistic schools assert that moksha is the loving, eternal union or nearness of one's soul with the distinct and separate Brahman (Vishnu, Shivaor equivalent henotheism). Brahman, in these sub-schools of Hinduism is considered the highest perfection of existence, which every soul journeys towards in its own way for moksha.

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Satischandra Chatterjee, Dheerendramohan Dutta (1948) An Introduction to Indian Philosophy. Calcutta: Calcutta University Press. pp. 395, 396
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 Nagaraja Rao, P. (1958) Introduction to Vedanta. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan.
  3. ↑ Juturi RK. (2020) Advaita Vedanta answer to the hard problem of consciousness: A philosophical review. Yoga Mimamsa 2020;52:84-87
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 See word Vedanta on Page 4/501
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 Sharma, Chandradhar. (1962) The Indian Philosophy : A Critical Survey. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 Aiyar, Krishnaswami R. (Reprint 1978) Outlines of Vedanta Bombay: Chetana Pvt. Ltd. pp. 1-7
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Aiyar, Krishnaswami R. (Reprint 1978) Outlines of Vedanta Bombay: Chetana Pvt. Ltd.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad. (1978) Studies in the History of Indian Philosophy. Calcutta: K. P. Bagchi & Co. p.267
  9. ↑ Hiriyanna, M. (1952) The Quest After Perfection. Mysore: Kavyalaya Publishers. p.75
  10. ↑ Srinivasachari, P. N. (1950) The Philosophy of Bhedabheda. Madras: Adyar Library.
  11. ↑ https://www.egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/38174/1/Unit-1.pdf
  12. ↑ Rao, Nagaraja P. (1943) The Schools of Vedanta. Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. p.22
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 Agarwal, M. M. and Potter, Karl H. (2013) eds., Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, Vol XV, Bhedabheda and Dvaitadvaita Systems. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. p 21-49
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 https://iep.utm.edu/bhedabheda-vedanta/#SH1e
  15. ↑ Swami Madhavananda. trans., Vedanta Paribhasha of Dharmaraja Adhvarindra. Howrah: The Ramakrishna Mission Sarada Pitha. pp 14, 15
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 Das, A. C. (1952). Brahman and Māyā in Advaita Metaphysics. Philosophy East and West, 2(2), 144–154. https://doi.org/10.2307/1397304
  17. ↑ Arvind Sharma (2007), Advaita Vedānta: An Introduction, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120820272, pages 19-40, 53-58, 79-86
  18. ↑ Anantanand Rambachan (2001), Heirarchies in the Nature of God? Questioning The "Saguna-Nirguna" Distinction in Advaita Vedanta, Journal of Hindu-Christian Studies, Vol. 14, No. 7, pages 1-6
  19. ↑ Anantanand Rambachan (1994), The limits of scripture: Vivekananda's reinterpretation of the Vedas. University of Hawaii Press, pages 125, 124
  20. ↑ 20.0 20.1 Cite error: Invalid <ref> tag; no text was provided for refs named Vedanta
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