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Line 66: − − ==Origins== − {{Hinduism}} − [[Vyasa]], the narrator of the [[Mahabharata]], is hagiographically credited as the compiler of the Puranas.<ref>[http://www.dlshq.org/religions/puranas.htm The Puranas by Swami Sivananda]</ref> − − The date of the production of the written texts does not define the date of origin of the Puranas.<ref name = Johnson247>{{Harvnb|Johnson|2009|p = 247}}</ref> They existed in an oral form before being written down, and were incrementally modified well into the 16th century.<ref name = Johnson247/><ref>{{Harvnb|Singh|1997|p=2324}}</ref> − − An early occurrence of the term 'purana' is found in the [[Chandogya Upanishad]] (7.1.2), translated by [[Patrick Olivelle]] as "the corpus of histories and ancient tales" (The Early Upanisads, 1998, p. 259). The [[Brhadaranyaka Upanishad]] refers to purana as the "fifth Veda",<ref>[[Brhadaranyaka Upanisad]] 2.4.10, 4.1.2, 4.5.11. Satapatha Brahmana (SBE, Vol. 44, pp. 98, 369). {{Harvnb|Moghe|1997|pp=160,249}}</ref> ''{{IAST|itihāsapurāṇaṃ pañcamaṃ vedānāṃ}}'', reflecting the early religious importance of these facts, which over time have been forgotten and presumably then in purely oral form. Importantly, the most famous form of itihāsapurāṇaṃ is the Mahabharata. The term also appears in the [[Atharvaveda]] 11.7.24.{{Sfn|Pargiter|1962|pp=30–54}}<ref name="moghe">{{Harvnb|Moghe|1997|p=249}} and the [[Satapatha Brahmana]] 11.5.6.8. and 13.4.3.13. [[Sacred Books of the East|SBE]] Vol. 44, pp. 98, 369</ref> It is important to bear in mind that perhaps a thousand years separates the occurrence of this term in these Upanisads from 'The Puranas' understood as a unified set of texts (see below), and it is therefore by no means certain that the term as it occurs in the Upanisads has any direct relation to what today is identified as 'The Puranas'. The extant Puranas, states Coburn, are not identical to the original Puranas.<ref>Thomas Colburn (2002), Devī-māhātmya: The Crystallization of the Goddess Tradition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120805576, page 27</ref> Rajendra Hazra notes that Puranas that survive presently do not follow, partially or totally, the characteristic definition of the scope and contents of Puranas as described in ancient non-Puranic Indian texts.<ref>RC Hazra (1987), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 5-7</ref> − − In the 19th century, [[F. E. Pargiter]] believed the "original Purana" may date to the time of the final redaction of the Vedas.{{Sfn|Pargiter|1962|pp=30–54}} Gavin Flood connects the rise of the written Purana historically with the rise of devotional cults centring upon a particular deity in the Gupta era: the Puranic corpus is a complex body of materials that advance the views of various competing cults.<ref name="flood" /> [[Wendy Doniger]], based on her study of indologists, assigns approximate dates to the various Puranas. She dates [[Markandeya Purana]] to c. 250 CE (with one portion dated to c. 550 CE), [[Matsya Purana]] to c. 250–500 CE, [[Vayu Purana]] to c. 350 CE, [[Harivamsa]] and [[Vishnu Purana]] to c. 450 CE, [[Brahmanda Purana]] to c. 350–950 CE, [[Vamana Purana]] to c. 450–900 CE, [[Kurma Purana]] to c. 550–850 CE, and [[Linga Purana]] to c. 600–1000 CE.<ref name=collins36>{{cite book|last=Collins|first=Charles Dillard|title=The Iconography and Ritual of Śiva at Elephanta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pQNi6kAGJQ4C&pg=PA36|year=1988|publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-88706-773-0|page=36}}</ref> Line 89:
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Line 136: − − ===Upapuranas=== − [[File:Ashta-Matrika.jpg|thumb|300px|The Goddess [[Durga]] Leading the Eight [[Matrikas]] in Battle Against the Demon [[Raktabija]], Folio from [[Devi Mahatmya]]m, Markandeya Purana.]] − {{main|Upapurana}} − The difference between Upapuranas and Mahapuranas has been explained by Rajendra Hazra as, "a Mahapurana is well known, and that what is less well known becomes an Upapurana".<ref name="Ludo Rocher 1986 page 63">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 63</ref> Rocher states that the distinction between Mahapurana and Upapurana is ahistorical, there is little corroborating evidence that either were more or less known, and that "the term Mahapurana occurs rarely in Purana literature, and is probably of late origin."<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 68</ref> − − The ''Upapuranas'' are eighteen in number, with disagreement as to which canonical titles belong in that list of eighteen. They include among many: Sanat-kumara, [[Narasimha Purana|Narasimha]], Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya, Durvasa, [[Kapila Purana|Kapila]], Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, [[Kalika Purana|Kalika]], [[Samba Purana|Samba]], Nandi, Surya, Parasara, Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, [[Ganesha Purana|Ganesha]], [[Mudgala Purana|Mudgala]], and Hamsa, with only a few having been critically edited.<ref>R. C. Hazra, ''Studies in the Upapuranas, vol. I'', Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1958. ''Studies in the Upapuranas, vol. II'', Calcutta, Sanskrit College, 1979. ''Studies in Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs'', Delhi, Banarsidass, 1975. Ludo Rocher, ''The Puranas - A History of Indian Literature Vol. II'', fasc. 3, Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1986.</ref><ref>''`Verbal Narratives: Performance and Gender of the Padma Purana'', by T.N. Sankaranarayana in {{Harvnb|Kaushal|2001|pp=225–234}}</ref> − − The Ganesha and Mudgala Puranas are devoted to [[Ganesha]].<ref name=Thapan>{{Harvnb|Thapan|1997|p=304}}</ref><ref>[http://gurjari.net/ico/Mystica/html/purana.htm Purana at Gurjari]</ref> The [[Devi-Bhagavata Purana]], which extols the goddess [[Durga]], has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Markandeya Purana) a basic text for [[Devi]] worshipers.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mackenzie|1990}}</ref> − − ===Sthala Puranas=== − This corpus of texts tells of the origins and traditions of particular Tamil Shiva temples or shrines. There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in [[vernacular]]s, some with Sanskrit versions as well. The 275 Shiva Sthalams of the continent have puranas for each, famously glorified in the [[Tamil literature]] ''[[Tevaram]].'' Some appear in Sanskrit versions in the Mahapuranas or Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by [[David Dean Shulman]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Shulman|1980}}</ref> − − ===Skanda Purana=== − The Skanda Purana is the largest Purana with 81,000 verses,<ref name=stephenknapp44>Stephen Knapp (2005), The Heart of Hinduism, ISBN 978-0595350759, pages 44-45</ref> named after deity [[Kartikeya|Skanda]], the son of Shiva and Uma, and brother of deity Ganesha.<ref>Yves Bonnefoy and Wendy Doniger (1993), Asian Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226064567, pages 92-95</ref> The mythological part of the text weaves the stories of Shiva and Vishnu, along with Parvati, Rama, Krishna and other major gods in Hindu pantheon.<ref name=stephenknapp44/> In Chapter 1.8, it declares, − − {{Quote| − Vishnu is nobody but Shiva, and he who is called Shiva is but identical with Vishnu. − |Skanda Purana|1.8.20-21<ref>Gregor Maehle (2009), Ashtanga Yoga, New World, ISBN 978-1577316695, page 17</ref><ref>[https://archive.org/stream/SriSkandaPuranam-SankaraSamhitaPart1#page/n31/mode/2up Skanda Purana] Shankara Samhita Part 1, Verses 1.8.20-21 (Sanskrit)</ref>}} − − The Skanda Purana has received renewed scholarship interest ever since the late 20th-century discovery of a [[Nepal]]ese Skanda Purana manuscript dated to be from early 9th-century. This discovery established that Skanda Purana existed by the 9th century. However, a comparison shows that the 9th-century document is entirely different than versions of Skanda Purana that have been circulating in South Asia since the colonial era.<ref name="R Andriaensen 1994 pages 325-331">R Andriaensen et al (1994), Towards a critical edition of the Skandapurana, Indo-Iranian Journal, Vol. 37, pages 325-331</ref> − [[File:A Thailand representation of Hindu mythology on cosmos creation.jpg|thumb|300px|The Puranas include cosmos creation myths such as the ''Samudra Manthan'' (churning of the ocean). These ideas spread to southeast Asia. It is represented in the [[Angkor Wat]] temple complex of [[Cambodia]], and at Bangkok airport, [[Thailand]] (above).]] Line 188:
Line 154: − Over time, states Om Prakash, chapters and verses from one Purana were transferred or interpolated into another Purana. Similarly, texts from Vedic literature, Smritis and Sutras were incorporated into the Puranas, older verses were replaced with new ones, thereby creating manuscripts with the same name but inconsistent content.<ref name=rajhazra6>RC Hazra (1987), Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120804227, pages 6-9 with footnotes</ref> The content about kings, history of various people, sages and kingdoms are in part based on real events, in part [[hagiography]], and in part expansive imagination or fabrication.<ref name=rajhazra6/> The high degree of inconsistency and manuscript corruption occurred particularly from the 12th century onwards, evidenced by cross referencing across the texts; Matsya Purana, for example, stated that Kurma Purana has 18,000 verses, while Agni Purana asserts the same text has 8,000 verses, and Naradiya attests that Kurma manuscript has 17,000 verses.<ref name=rajhazra6/>+ − − Along with inconsistencies, common ideas are found throughout the corpus but it is not possible to trace the lines of influence of one Purana upon another so the corpus is best viewed as a synchronous whole.<ref name="flood">{{Harvnb|Flood|1996|p = 359 }}</ref> An example of similar myths woven across the Puranas, but in different versions, include the ''lingabhava'' – the "apparition of the [[linga]]". The story features Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva, the three major deities of Hinduism, who get together, debate, and after various versions of the story, in the end the glory of Shiva is established by the apparition of linga. This myth, state Bonnefoy and Doniger, appears in Vayu Purana 1.55, Brahmanda Purana 1.26, Shiva Purana's Rudra Samhita Sristi Khanda 15, Skanda Purana's chapters 1.3, 1.16 and 3.1, and other Puranas.<ref name=yveswendy38>Yves Bonnefoy and Wendy Doniger (1993), Asian Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226064567, pages 38-39</ref> − − − − ===Symbolism and layers of meaning=== − The texts use ideas, concepts and even names that are symbolic.<ref name=yveswendy38/> The words can interpreted literally, and at an [[axiology|axiological]] level.<ref>Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition, Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 130-132</ref> The [[Vishnu Purana]], for example, recites a myth where the names of the characters are loaded with symbolism and axiological significance. The myth is as follows, − − {{Quote| − The progeny of [[Dharma]] by the daughters of Daksha were as follows: by Sraddhá (devotion) he had [[Kama]] (desire); by Lakshmí (wealth, prosperity), was born Darpa (pride); by Dhriti (courage), the progeny was [[Niyama]] (precept); by Tusht́i (inner comfort), [[Santosha]] (contentment); by Pusht́i (opulence), the progeny was Lobha (cupidity, greed); by Medhá (wisdom, experience), Sruta (sacred tradition); by Kriyá (hard work, labour), the progeny were Dańd́a, Naya, and Vinaya (justice, politics, and education); by Buddhi (intellect), Bodha (understanding); by Lajjá (shame, humility), Vinaya (good behaviour); by Vapu (body, strength), Vyavasaya (perseverance). Shanti (peace) gave birth to [[Forgiveness#Hinduism|Kshama]] (forgiveness); Siddhi (excellence) to Sukha (enjoyment); and Kírtti (glorious speech) gave birth to Yasha (reputation). These were the sons of Dharma; one of whom, Kama (love, emotional fulfillment) had baby Hersha (joy) by his wife Nandi (delight). − − The wife of Adharma (vice, wrong, evil) was Hinsá (violence), on whom he begot a son Anrita (falsehood), and a daughter Nikriti (immorality): they intermarried, and had two sons, Bhaya (fear) and Naraka (hell); and twins to them, two daughters, Máyá (deceit) and Vedaná (torture), who became their wives. The son of Bhaya (fear) and Máyá (deceit) was the destroyer of living creatures, or Mrityu (death); and Dukha (pain) was the offspring of Naraka (hell) and Vedaná (torture). The children of Mrityu were Vyádhi (disease), Jará (decay), Soka (sorrow), Trishńa (greediness), and Krodha (wrath). These are all called the inflictors of misery, and are characterised as the progeny of Vice (Adharma). They are all without wives, without posterity, without the faculty to procreate; they perpetually operate as causes of the destruction of this world. On the contrary, Daksha and the other Rishis, the elders of mankind, tend perpetually to influence its renovation: whilst the Manus and their sons, the heroes endowed with mighty power, and treading in the path of truth, as constantly contribute to its preservation. − |Vishnu Purana|Chapter 7, Translated by [[Horace Hayman Wilson]]<ref>[http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/vp/vp041.htm Vishnu Purana] Chapter 7</ref>}} − − ===Puranas as a complement to the Vedas=== − [[File:Krishna and the Gopis (herdsmaids).jpg|thumb|The mythology in the Puranas has inspired many [[relief]]s and sculptures found in [[Hindu temple]]s.<ref>Sara Schastok (1997), The Śāmalājī Sculptures and 6th Century Art in Western India, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004069411, pages 77-79, 88</ref> The legend behind the Krishna and Gopis relief above is described in the Bhagavata Purana.<ref>Edwin Bryant (2007), Krishna : A Sourcebook: A Sourcebook, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195148923, pages 111-119</ref>]] − The Puranic literature, stated [[Max Muller]], is independent, has changed often over its history, and has little relation to the Vedic age or the Vedic literature.<ref name=ludorocher13>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 13-16</ref> Some scholars suggest that the Puranas claim a link to the Vedas but in name only, not in substance.<ref name=ludorocher13/> Yet a third group of scholars state that the link is there, at least in spiritual themes and theology. The Puranas aim to complement the Vedic literature, interpret its theories, and help spread the ideas therein.<ref name=ludorocher13/><ref>Barbara Holdrege (1995), Veda and Torah: Transcending the Textuality of Scripture, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791416402, pages 95-97</ref> − − ===Puranas as encyclopedias=== − The Puranas, states Kees Bolle, are best seen as "vast, often encyclopedic" works from ancient and medieval India.<ref>Kee Bolle (1963), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1062068 Reflections on a Puranic Passage], History of Religions, Vol. 2, No. 2 (Winter, 1963), pages 286-291</ref> Some of them, such as the Agni Purana and Matsya Purana, cover all sorts of subjects, dealing with – states Rocher – "anything and everything", from fiction to facts, from practical recipes to abstract philosophy, from geographic ''Mahatmyas'' (travel guides){{Sfn|Ariel Glucklich|2008|p=146, '''Quote:''' The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called ''mahatmyas''}} to cosmetics, from festivals to astronomy.<ref name=gregorybailey/><ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 1-5, 12-21, 79-80, 96-98; Quote: '''These are the true encyclopedic Puranas. in which detached chapters or sections, dealing with any imaginable subject, follow one another, without connection or transition. Three Puranas especially belong to this category: Matsya, Garuda and above all Agni.'''</ref> Like encyclopedias, they were updated to remain current with their times, by a process called ''Upabrimhana''.<ref>Ronald Inden (2000), Querying the Medieval : Texts and the History of Practices in South Asia, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124309, pages 94-95</ref> However, some of the 36 major and minor Puranas are more focussed handbooks, such as the Skanda Purana, Padma Purana and Bhavishya Purana which deal primarily with ''Tirtha Mahatmyas'' (pilgrimage travel guides),{{Sfn|Ariel Glucklich|2008|p=146, '''Quote:''' The earliest promotional works aimed at tourists from that era were called ''mahatmyas''}} while Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana focus more on history, mythology and legends.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 78-79</ref> − − ===Puranas as religious texts=== − The colonial era scholars of Puranas studied them primarily as religious texts, with Vans Kennedy declaring in 1837, that any other use of these documents would be disappointing.<ref name=ludorocher104/> [[John Zephaniah Holwell]], who from 1732 onwards spent 30 years in India and was elected Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] in 1767, described the Puranas as "18 books of divine words".<ref name=ursapp/> British officials and researchers such as Holwell, states Urs App, were [[orientalism|orientalist]] scholars who introduced a distorted picture of Indian literature and Puranas as "sacred scriptures of India" in 1767. Holwell, states Urs App, "presented it as the opinion of knowledgeable Indians; But it is abundantly clear that no knowledgeable Indian would ever have said anything remotely similar".<ref name=ursapp>Urs App (2010), The Birth of Orientalism, University of Pennsylvania Press, ISBN 978-0812242614, pages 331, 323-334</ref> − − Modern scholarship doubts this 19th-century premise.<ref>Jan Gonda (1975), Selected Studies: Indo-European linguistics, BRILL, ISBN 978-9004042285, pages 51-86</ref> Ludo Rocher, for example, states, − − {{Quote| − I want to stress the fact that it would be irresponsible and highly misleading to speak of or pretend to describe the religion of the Puranas. − |[[Ludo Rocher]]|The Puranas<ref name=ludorocher104>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 104-106 with footnotes</ref>}} − − The study of Puranas as a religious text remains a controversial subject.<ref>Ronald Inden (2000), Querying the Medieval : Texts and the History of Practices in South Asia, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124309, pages 87-98</ref> Some Indologists, in colonial tradition of scholarship, treat the Puranic texts as scriptures or useful source of religious contents.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 19-20</ref> Other scholars, such as Ronald Inden, consider this approach "essentialist and antihistorical" because the Purana texts changed often over time and over distance, and the underlying presumption of they being religious texts is that those changes are "Hinduism expressed by a religious leader or philosopher", or "expressiveness of Hindu mind", or "society at large", when the texts and passages are literary works and "individual geniuses of their authors".<ref>Ronald Inden (2000), Querying the Medieval : Texts and the History of Practices in South Asia, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195124309, pages 95-96</ref> − − ====Sectarian, pluralistic or monotheistic theme==== − Scholars have debated whether the Puranas should be categorized as sectarian, or non-partisan, or monotheistic religious texts.<ref name=ludorochersect/><ref name=bryant11/> Different Puranas describe a number of stories where Brahma, VIshnu and Shiva compete for supremacy.<ref name=bryant11/> In some Puranas, such as [[Devi Bhagavata]], the Goddess Devi joins the competition and ascends for the position of being Supreme. Further, most Puranas emphasize legends around one who is either Shiva, or Vishnu, or Devi.<ref name=ludorochersect/> The texts thus appear to be sectarian. However, states Edwin Bryant, while these legends sometimes appear to be partisan, they are merely acknowledging the obvious question of whether one or the other is more important, more powerful. In the final analysis, all Puranas weave their legends to celebrate pluralism, and accept the other two and all gods in Hindu pantheon as personalized form but equivalent essence of the Ultimate Reality called [[Brahman]].<ref>EO James (1997), The Tree of Life, BRILL Academic, ISBN 978-9004016125, pages 150-153</ref><ref>Barbara Holdrege (2015), Bhakti and Embodiment, Routledge, ISBN 978-0415670708, pages 113-114</ref> The Puranas are not spiritually partisan, states Bryant, but "accept and indeed extol the transcendent and absolute nature of the other, and of the Goddess Devi too".<ref name=bryant11>Edwin Bryant (2003), Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana, Penguin, ISBN 978-0141913377, pages 10-12</ref> − − {{Quote| − [The Puranic text] merely affirm that the other deity is to be considered a derivative manifestation of their respective deity, or in the case of Devi, the ''Shakti'', or power of the male divinity. The term monotheism, if applied to the Puranic tradition, needs to be understood in the context of a supreme being, whether understood as Vishnu, Shiva or Devi, who can manifest himself or herself as other supreme beings. − |Edwin Bryant|Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God: Srimad Bhagavata Purana<ref name=bryant11/>}} − − Ludo Rocher, in his review of Puranas as sectarian texts, states, "even though the Puranas contain sectarian materials, their sectarianism should not be interpreted as exclusivism in favor of one god to the detriment of all others".<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 23 with footnote 35</ref> − − ===Puranas as historical texts=== − Despite the diversity and wealth of manuscripts from ancient and medieval India that have survived into the modern times, there is a paucity of historical data in them.<ref name=ludorocher115>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 115-121 with footnotes</ref> Neither the author name nor the year of their composition were recorded or preserved, over the centuries, as the documents were copied from one generation to another. This paucity tempted 19th-century scholars to use the Puranas as a source of chronological and historical information about India or Hinduism.<ref name=ludorocher115/> This effort was, after some effort, either summarily rejected by some scholars, or become controversial, because the Puranas include fables and fiction, and the information within and across the Puranas was found to be inconsistent.<ref name=ludorocher115/> − − In early 20th-century, some regional records were found to be more consistent, such as for the Hindu dynasties in [[Telangana]], Andhra Pradesh. Basham, as well as Kosambi have questioned whether lack of inconsistency is sufficient proof of reliability and [[historicity]].<ref name=ludorocher115/> More recent scholarship has attempted to, with limited success, states Ludo Rocher, use the Puranas for historical information in combination with independent corroborating evidence, such as "epigraphy, archaeology, Buddhist literature, Jaina literature, non-Puranic literature, Islamic records, and records preserved outside India by travelers to or from India in medieval times such as in China, Myanmar and Indonesia".<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 121-127 with footnotes</ref><ref>L Srinivasan (2000), [http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1567807 Historicity of the Indian mythology : Some observations], Man in India, Vol. 80, No. 1-2, pages 89-106</ref> − − ==Manuscripts== − [[File:Devimahatmya Sanskrit MS Nepal 11c.jpg|thumb|300px|An 11th-century Nepalese palm-leaf manuscript in Sanskrit of Devimahatmya (Markandeya Purana).]] − The study of Puranas manuscripts has been challenging because they are highly inconsistent.<ref name=ludorocher59m>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 59-67</ref><ref>Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1570034497, pages 141-142</ref> This is true for all Mahapuranas and Upapuranas.<ref name=ludorocher59m/> Most editions of Puranas, in use particularly by Western scholars, are "based on one manuscript or on a few manuscripts selected at random", even though divergent manuscripts with the same title exist. Scholars have long acknowledged the existence of Purana manuscripts that "seem to differ much from printed edition", and it is unclear which one is accurate, and whether conclusions drawn from the randomly or cherrypicked printed version were universal over geography or time.<ref name=ludorocher59m/> This problem is most severe with Purana manuscripts of the same title, but in regional languages such as Tamil, Telugu, Bengali and others which have largely been ignored.<ref name=ludorocher59m/> − − {{Quote| − Modern scholarship noticed all these facts. It recognized that the extent of the genuine Agni Purana was not the same at all times and in all places, and that it varied with the difference in time and locality. (...) This shows that the text of the Devi Purana was not the same everywhere but differed considerably in different provinces. Yet, one failed to draw the logical conclusion: besides the version or versions of puranas that appear in our [surviving] manuscripts, and fewer still in our [printed] editions, there have been numerous other versions, under the same titles, but which either have remained unnoticed or have been irreparably lost. − |Ludo Rocher|The Puranas<ref name="Ludo Rocher 1986 page 63">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, page 63</ref><ref>Rajendra Hazra (1956), Discovery of the genuine Agneya-purana, Journal of the Oriental Institute Baroda, Vol. 4-5, pages 411-416</ref>}} − − ===Translations=== − [[Horace Hayman Wilson]] published one of the earliest English translations of one version of the Vishnu Purana in 1840.<ref>HH Wilson (1840), [https://archive.org/stream/worksbylatehorace06wils#page/n5/mode/2up Vishnu Purana] Trubner and Co., Reprinted in 1864</ref> The same manuscript, and Wilson's translation, was reinterpreted by Manmatha Nath Dutt, and published in 1896.<ref>MN Dutt (1896), [https://archive.org/stream/Vishnupurana-English-MnDutt#page/n1/mode/2up Vishnupurana] Eylsium Press, Calcutta</ref> The All India Kashiraj Trust has published editions of the Puranas.<ref>{{Harvnb|Mittal|2004|p=657}}</ref> − − Maridas Poullé (Mariyadas Pillai) published a French translation from a Tamil version of the Bhagavata Purana in 1788, and this was widely distributed in Europe becoming an introduction to the 18th-century Hindu culture and Hinduism to many Europeans during the colonial era. Poullé republished a different translation of the same text as ''Le Bhagavata'' in 1795, from [[Pondicherry]].<ref>[[Jean Filliozat]] (1968), Tamil Studies in French Indology, in Tamil Studies Abroad, Xavier S Thani Nayagam, pages 1-14</ref> A copy of Poullé translation is preserved in [[Bibliothèque nationale de France]], Paris. − [[File:Bharathanatyam By Ranjitha.jpg|thumb|The Puranas have had a large cultural impact on [[Hindu]]s, from festivals to diverse arts. [[Bharata natyam]] (above) is inspired in part by Bhagavata Purana.<ref name=katherinezubko>Katherine Zubko (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201</ref>]] Line 257:
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The word '''Puranas''' ({{lang-sa|{{lang|sa|पुराण}}}}, ''{{IAST|purāṇa}}'', {{IPAc-en|p|ʊ|ˈ|r|ɑː|n|ə|z}};<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/purana "Purana"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref>) literally means "ancient, old",<ref name=merriam>Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, ISBN 0-877790426, page 915</ref> and it is a vast genre of Indian literature.
The word '''Puranas''' ({{lang-sa|{{lang|sa|पुराण}}}}, ''{{IAST|purāṇa}}'', {{IPAc-en|p|ʊ|ˈ|r|ɑː|n|ə|z}};<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/purana "Purana"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref>) literally means "ancient, old",<ref name=merriam>Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of Literature (1995 Edition), Article on Puranas, ISBN 0-877790426, page 915</ref> and it is a vast genre of Indian literature. They have been influential in the [[Hindu culture]], inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 12-13, 134-156, 203-210</ref>
They have been influential in the [[Hindu culture]], inspiring major national and regional annual festivals of Hinduism.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 12-13, 134-156, 203-210</ref> Their role and value as sectarian religious texts and historical texts has been controversial because all Puranas praise many gods and goddesses and "their sectarianism is far less clear cut" than assumed, states [[Ludo Rocher]].<ref name="ludorochersect">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 21-24, 104-113, 115-126</ref> The religious practices included in them are considered ''Vaidika'' (congruent with Vedic literature), because they do not preach initiation into Tantra.<ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page xxxix</ref> The [[Bhagavata Purana]] has been among the most celebrated and popular text in the Puranic genre, and is of [[nondualism|non-dualistic]] tenor.<ref name="richardthompson" /><ref>Dominic Goodall (1996), Hindu Scriptures, University of California Press, ISBN 978-0520207783, page xli</ref> The Puranic literature wove with the [[Bhakti movement]] in India, and both [[Dvaita]] and [[Advaita]] scholars have commented on the underlying Vedantic themes in the ''Maha Puranas''.<ref>BN Krishnamurti Sharma (2008), A History of the Dvaita School of Vedānta and Its Literature, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120815759, pages 128-131</ref>
==Description==
==Description==
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The object of the Matsya Avatara was to save Vaivasvata Manu from destruction by a deluge. The object of Kurma Avatara was to enable the world to recover some precious things which were lost in the deluge. The Kurma gave its back for keeping the churning rod when the Gods and the Asuras churned the ocean of milk. The purpose of Varaha Avatara was to rescue, from the waters, the earth which had been dragged down by a demon named Hiranyaksha. The purpose of Narasimha Avatara, half-lion and half-man, was to free the world from the oppression of Hiranyakasipu, a demon, the father of Bhakta Prahlada. The object of Vamana Avatara was to restore the power of the gods which had been eclipsed by the penance and devotion of King Bali. The object of Parasurama Avatara was to deliver the country from oppression of the the Kshatriya rulers. Parasurama destroyed the Kshatriya race twenty-one times. The object of Rama was to destroy the wicked Ravana. The object of Sri Krishna Avatara was to destroy Kamsa and other demons, and to deliver His wonderful message of the Gita in the Mahabharata war. The object of Buddha Avatara was to prohibit animal sacrifices and teach piety. The object of the Kalki Avatara is the destruction of the wicked and the re-establishment of virtue.
The object of the Matsya Avatara was to save Vaivasvata Manu from destruction by a deluge. The object of Kurma Avatara was to enable the world to recover some precious things which were lost in the deluge. The Kurma gave its back for keeping the churning rod when the Gods and the Asuras churned the ocean of milk. The purpose of Varaha Avatara was to rescue, from the waters, the earth which had been dragged down by a demon named Hiranyaksha. The purpose of Narasimha Avatara, half-lion and half-man, was to free the world from the oppression of Hiranyakasipu, a demon, the father of Bhakta Prahlada. The object of Vamana Avatara was to restore the power of the gods which had been eclipsed by the penance and devotion of King Bali. The object of Parasurama Avatara was to deliver the country from oppression of the the Kshatriya rulers. Parasurama destroyed the Kshatriya race twenty-one times. The object of Rama was to destroy the wicked Ravana. The object of Sri Krishna Avatara was to destroy Kamsa and other demons, and to deliver His wonderful message of the Gita in the Mahabharata war. The object of Buddha Avatara was to prohibit animal sacrifices and teach piety. The object of the Kalki Avatara is the destruction of the wicked and the re-establishment of virtue.<ref name=":0" />
==== The Tamil Puranas<ref name=":0" /> ====
==== The Tamil Puranas<ref name=":0" /> ====
==Etymology==
==Etymology==
Douglas Harper states that the etymological origins of ''Puranas'' is from Sanskrit ''Puranah'', literally "ancient, former," from ''pura'' "formerly, before," cognate with Greek ''paros'' "before," ''pro'' "before," Avestan ''paro'' "before," Old English fore, from proto-Indo-European ''*pre-'', from root ''*per-''."<ref>Douglas Harper (2015), [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Purana Purana], Etymology Dictionary</ref>
Douglas Harper states that the etymological origins of ''Puranas'' is from Sanskrit ''Puranah'', literally "ancient, former," from ''pura'' "formerly, before," cognate with Greek ''paros'' "before," ''pro'' "before," Avestan ''paro'' "before," Old English fore, from proto-Indo-European ''*pre-'', from root ''*per-''."<ref>Douglas Harper (2015), [http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Purana Purana], Etymology Dictionary</ref>
==Texts==
==Texts==
| 1 || [[Agni Purana|Agni]] || 15,400 verses || Contains encyclopedic information. Includes geography of Mithila ([[Bihar]] and neighboring states), cultural history, politics, education system, iconography, taxation theories, organization of army, theories on proper causes for war, diplomacy, local laws, building public projects, water distribution methods, trees and plants, medicine, Vastu Shastra (architecture), gemology, grammar, metrics, poetry, food, rituals and numerous other topics.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 134-137</ref>
| 1 || [[Agni Purana|Agni]] || 15,400 verses || Contains encyclopedic information. Includes geography of Mithila ([[Bihar]] and neighboring states), cultural history, politics, education system, iconography, taxation theories, organization of army, theories on proper causes for war, diplomacy, local laws, building public projects, water distribution methods, trees and plants, medicine, Vastu Shastra (architecture), gemology, grammar, metrics, poetry, food, rituals and numerous other topics.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 134-137</ref>
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| 2 || [[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagavata]] || 18,000 verses || The most studied and popular of the Puranas,<ref name=richardthompson>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Richard L.|title=The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TZmDSr-1msC&pg=PA10|year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-1919-1|page=10}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|1899|p=752}}, column 3, under the entry ''Bhagavata.''</ref> telling of Vishnu's [[Avatar]]s, and of Vaishnavism. It contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name=ludorocher115/> Numerous inconsistent versions of this text and historical manuscripts exist, in many Indian languages.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 139-149</ref> Influential and elaborated during [[Bhakti movement]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hardy|2001}}</ref>
| 2 || [[Bhagavata Purana|Bhagavata]] || 18,000 verses || The most studied and popular of the Puranas,<ref name=richardthompson>{{cite book|last=Thompson|first=Richard L.|title=The Cosmology of the Bhagavata Purana 'Mysteries of the Sacred Universe|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3TZmDSr-1msC&pg=PA10|year=2007|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers|isbn=978-81-208-1919-1|page=10}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Monier-Williams|1899|p=752}}, column 3, under the entry ''Bhagavata.''</ref> telling of Vishnu's [[Avatar]]s, and of Vaishnavism. It contains a controversial genealogical details of various dynasties.<ref name="ludorocher115">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 115-121 with footnotes</ref> Numerous inconsistent versions of this text and historical manuscripts exist, in many Indian languages.<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 139-149</ref> Influential and elaborated during [[Bhakti movement]].<ref>{{Harvnb|Hardy|2001}}</ref>
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| 3 || [[Brahma Purana|Brahma]] || 10,000 verses || Sometimes also called Adi Purana, because many Mahapuranas lists put it first of 18.<ref name=ludorocher154/> The text has 245 chapters, shares many passages with Vishnu, Vayu, Markendeya Puranas, and with the [[Mahabharata]]. Includes mythology, theory of war, art work in temples, and other cultural topics. Describes holy places in [[Odisha]], and weaves themes of Vishnu and Shiva, but hardly any mention of deity Brahma despite the title.<ref name=ludorocher154>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 154-156</ref>
| 3 || [[Brahma Purana|Brahma]] || 10,000 verses || Sometimes also called Adi Purana, because many Mahapuranas lists put it first of 18.<ref name=ludorocher154/> The text has 245 chapters, shares many passages with Vishnu, Vayu, Markendeya Puranas, and with the [[Mahabharata]]. Includes mythology, theory of war, art work in temples, and other cultural topics. Describes holy places in [[Odisha]], and weaves themes of Vishnu and Shiva, but hardly any mention of deity Brahma despite the title.<ref name=ludorocher154>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 154-156</ref>
All major Puranas contain sections on [[Devi]] (goddesses) and [[Tantra]], but of these the six most significant ones are: [[Markandeya Purana]], [[Shiva Purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]], [[Agni Purana]] and [[Padma Purana]].<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 113-114, 153-154, 161, 167-169, 171-174, 182-187, 190-194, 210, 225-227, 242</ref>
All major Puranas contain sections on [[Devi]] (goddesses) and [[Tantra]], but of these the six most significant ones are: [[Markandeya Purana]], [[Shiva Purana]], [[Linga Purana]], [[Brahma Vaivarta Purana]], [[Agni Purana]] and [[Padma Purana]].<ref>Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 113-114, 153-154, 161, 167-169, 171-174, 182-187, 190-194, 210, 225-227, 242</ref>
==Content==
==Content==
Several Puranas, such as the Matysa Purana,<ref>''Matsya Purana'' 53.65</ref> list "five characteristics" or "five signs" of a Purana.<ref name="oliverleaman437">Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 437-439</ref> These are called the ''Pancha Lakshana'' ( {{IAST|pañcalakṣaṇa}}), and are topics covered by a Purana:<ref name=oliverleaman437/><ref name=Rao>{{Harvnb|Rao|1993|pp=85–100}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|2009|p = 248 }}</ref>
Several Puranas, such as the Matysa Purana,<ref>''Matsya Purana'' 53.65</ref> list "five characteristics" or "five signs" of a Purana.<ref name="oliverleaman437">Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 437-439</ref> These are called the ''Pancha Lakshana'' ( {{IAST|pañcalakṣaṇa}}), and are topics covered by a Purana:<ref name=oliverleaman437/><ref name=Rao>{{Harvnb|Rao|1993|pp=85–100}}</ref><ref>{{Harvnb|Johnson|2009|p = 248 }}</ref>
#''Sarga'': [[cosmogony]]
#''Sarga'': [[cosmogony]]
These five or ten sections weave in biographies, myths, geography, medicine, astronomy, Hindu temples, pilgrimage to distant real places, rites of passage, charity, ethics,<ref>Gopal Gupta (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 63-75</ref> duties, rights, dharma, divine intervention in cosmic and human affairs, love stories,<ref>Graham Schweig (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 117-132</ref> festivals, theosophy and philosophy.<ref name=oliverleaman437/><ref name="gregorybailey">Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1570034497, page 139</ref><ref name="ludorocher">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 1-5, 12-21</ref> The Puranas link gods to men, both generally and in religious [[bhakti]] context.<ref name=gregbailey440/> Here the Puranic literature follows a general pattern. It starts with introduction, a future devotee is described as ignorant about the god yet curious, the devotee learns about the god and this begins the spiritual realization, the text then describes instances of god's grace which begins to persuade and convert the devotee, the devotee then shows devotion which is rewarded by the god, the reward is appreciated by the devotee and in return performs actions to express further devotion.<ref name=gregbailey440>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 440-443</ref>
These five or ten sections weave in biographies, myths, geography, medicine, astronomy, Hindu temples, pilgrimage to distant real places, rites of passage, charity, ethics,<ref>Gopal Gupta (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 63-75</ref> duties, rights, dharma, divine intervention in cosmic and human affairs, love stories,<ref>Graham Schweig (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 117-132</ref> festivals, theosophy and philosophy.<ref name=oliverleaman437/><ref name="gregorybailey">Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1570034497, page 139</ref><ref name="ludorocher">Ludo Rocher (1986), The Puranas, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, ISBN 978-3447025225, pages 1-5, 12-21</ref> The Puranas link gods to men, both generally and in religious [[bhakti]] context.<ref name=gregbailey440/> Here the Puranic literature follows a general pattern. It starts with introduction, a future devotee is described as ignorant about the god yet curious, the devotee learns about the god and this begins the spiritual realization, the text then describes instances of god's grace which begins to persuade and convert the devotee, the devotee then shows devotion which is rewarded by the god, the reward is appreciated by the devotee and in return performs actions to express further devotion.<ref name=gregbailey440>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 440-443</ref>
The texts are in Sanskrit as well as regional languages,<ref name="johncort185">John Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791413821, pages 185-204</ref><ref name="gregorybailey" /> and almost entirely in narrative metric couplets.<ref name="merriam" />
The texts are in Sanskrit as well as regional languages,<ref name="johncort185">John Cort (1993), Purana Perennis: Reciprocity and Transformation in Hindu and Jaina Texts (Editor: Wendy Doniger), State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791413821, pages 185-204</ref><ref name=gregorybailey/> and almost entirely in narrative metric couplets.<ref name=merriam/>
==Influence==
==Influence==
The most significant influence of the Puranas genre of Indian literature have been, state scholars and particularly Indian scholars,<ref name=gregbailey442/> in "culture synthesis", in weaving and integrating the diverse beliefs from ritualistic rites of passage to Vedantic philosophy, from fictional legends to factual history, from individual introspective yoga to social celebratory festivals, from temples to pilgrimage, from one god to another, from goddesses to tantra, from the old to the new.<ref>Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1570034497, pages 162-167</ref> These have been dynamic open texts, composed socially, over time. This, states Greg Bailey, may have allowed the Hindu culture to "preserve the old while constantly coming to terms with the new", and "if they are anything, they are records of cultural adaptation and transformation" over the last 2,000 years.<ref name=gregbailey442>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 442-443</ref>
The most significant influence of the Puranas genre of Indian literature have been, state scholars and particularly Indian scholars,<ref name=gregbailey442/> in "culture synthesis", in weaving and integrating the diverse beliefs from ritualistic rites of passage to Vedantic philosophy, from fictional legends to factual history, from individual introspective yoga to social celebratory festivals, from temples to pilgrimage, from one god to another, from goddesses to tantra, from the old to the new.<ref>Gregory Bailey (2003), The Study of Hinduism (Editor: Arvind Sharma), The University of South Carolina Press, ISBN 978-1570034497, pages 162-167</ref> These have been dynamic open texts, composed socially, over time. This, states Greg Bailey, may have allowed the Hindu culture to "preserve the old while constantly coming to terms with the new", and "if they are anything, they are records of cultural adaptation and transformation" over the last 2,000 years.<ref name=gregbailey442>Greg Bailey (2001), Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy (Editor: Oliver Leaman), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415172813, pages 442-443</ref>
;Indian Arts
;Indian Arts
The cultural influence of the Puranas extended to Indian classical arts, such as songs, dance culture such as [[Bharata Natyam]] in south India<ref name=katherinezubko/> and [[Rasa Lila]] in northeast India,<ref>Guy Beck (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201</ref> plays and recitations.<ref>Ilona Wilczewska (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 202-220</ref>
The cultural influence of the Puranas extended to Indian classical arts, such as songs, dance culture such as [[Bharata Natyam]] in south India<ref name="katherinezubko">Katherine Zubko (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201</ref> and [[Rasa Lila]] in northeast India,<ref>Guy Beck (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 181-201</ref> plays and recitations.<ref>Ilona Wilczewska (2013), The Bhagavata Purana: Sacred Text and Living Tradition (Editors: Ravi Gupta and Kenneth Valpey), Columbia University Press, ISBN 978-0231149983, pages 202-220</ref>
;Festivals
;Festivals