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Line 1: − '''Asuras''' ({{lang-sa|असुर}}) are mythological lord beings in Bharat's and Persian (Ariæns) texts who compete for power with the more benevolent [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] (also known as ''suras''). Asuras are described in Bharat's texts as powerful superhuman demigods or demons with good or bad qualities. The good Asuras are called ''[[Adityas]]'' and are led by [[Varuna]], while the malevolent ones are called ''[[Danava (Hinduism)|Danavas]]'' and are led by [[Vritra]].+ − − In the earliest layer of Vedic texts Agni, Indra and other gods are also called Asuras, in the sense of them being "lords" of their respective domains, knowledge and abilities. In later Vedic and post-Vedic texts, the benevolent gods are called ''Devas'', while malevolent Asuras compete against these Devas and are considered "enemy of the gods" or demons.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 5-11, 22, 99-102</ref> − − Asuras are part of Bharat's mythology along with Devas, [[Yaksha]] (nature spirits) and [[Rakshasa]]s (ghosts, ogres), and Asuras feature in one of many cosmological theories in [[Hinduism]].<ref>Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Bharat's Cosmology, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004256156, pages 23-29</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0719018664, page 67</ref> − Monier-Williams traces the etymological roots of ''Asura'' (असुर) to ''Asu'' (असु), which means life of the spiritual world or departed spirits.<ref name=monier>Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 121</ref> In the oldest verses of the [[Samhita]] layer of Vedic texts, the ''Asuras'' are any spiritual, divine beings including those with good or bad intentions, and constructive or destructive inclinations or nature.<ref name=monier/> In later verses of the Samhita layer of Vedic texts, Monier Williams states the ''Asuras'' are "evil spirits, demon and opponent of the gods". Asuras connote the chaos-creating evil, in Hindu and Persian (Arians) mythology about the battle between good and evil.<ref name=monier/>+ − − Bhargava states the word, Asura, including its variants, asurya and asura, occurs "88 times in the Rigveda, 71 times in the singular number, four times in the dual, 10 times in the plural, and three times as the first member of a compound. In this, the feminine form, asuryaa, is included twice. The word, asurya, has been used 19 times as an abstract noun, while the abstract form asuratva occurs 24 times, 22 times in each of the 22 times of one hymn and twice in the other two hymns".<ref>PL Bhargava, ''Vedic Religion and Culture'', South Asia Books, ISBN 978-8124600061</ref> − − Asura is used as an adjective meaning "powerful" or "mighty". In the [[Rigveda]], two generous kings, as well as some priests, have been described as asuras. One hymn requests a son who is an asura. In nine hymns, [[Indra]] is described as asura. Five times, he is said to possess asurya, and once he is said to possess asuratva. [[Agni]] has total of 12 asura descriptions, [[Varuna]] has 10, [[Mitra]] has eight, and [[Rudra]] has six. Bhargava gives a count of the word usage for every Vedic deity.{{cn|date=July 2015}} The Book 1 of Rig Veda describes [[Savitr]] (Vedic solar deity) as an Asura who is a "kind leader".<ref name= griffith135/> − − {{Quote| − <poem> − हिरण्यहस्तो '''असुरः''' सुनीथः सुमृळीकः स्ववाँ यात्वर्वाङ् <nowiki>। − अपसेधन्रक्षसो यातुधानानस्थाद्देवः प्रतिदोषं गृणानः ॥१०॥</nowiki><ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेद:_सूक्तं_१०.२२ Rigveda] Sanskrit text, Wikisource</ref> − − May he, gold-handed '''Asura''', kind leader, come hither to us with his help and favour. − Driving off ''Raksasas'' and ''Yatudhanas'', [he] the god is present, praised in hymns at evening. − – Translated by Ralph Griffith<ref name=griffith135>[[Wikisource:The Rig Veda/Mandala 1/Hymn 35|Mandala 1, Hymn 35]] Ralph T Griffith, Wikisource</ref> − − May the golden-handed, life-bestowing, well-guiding, exhilarating and affluent Savitri [Asura] be present; − for the deity, if worshipped in the evening, is at hand, driving away ''Rakshasas'' and ''Yatudhanas''. − – Translated by HH Wilson<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhita01wils#page/100/mode/2up Rigveda First Ashtaka 1.35, Hymn 10] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, pages 99-100</ref> − </poem> − |Rigveda 1.35.10}} − − In later texts, such as the [[Puranas]] and the [[Itihasas]] with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.<ref>Nicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Bharat's, Chinese, and Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791445280, pages 59-76</ref><ref name=fowlergita/> According to the [[Bhagavad Gita]] (16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (''daivi sampad'') and the demonic qualities (''asuri sampad'') within each.<ref name=fowlergita/><ref name=chrischapple/> The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults.<ref name=fowlergita/> According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).<ref name=fowlergita>Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 253-262</ref><ref name=chrischapple>Christopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages 610-629</ref> − − [[Asko Parpola]] traces the etymological root of ''Asura'' to *asera- of [[Uralic languages]], where it means "lord, prince".<ref name=asko>Asko Parpola (2015), The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0190226923, pages 114-116</ref> − + − − Kuiper calls ''Asuras'' a special group of gods in one of major Vedic theories of creation of the universe.<ref name=kuiper>FBJ Kuiper (1975), The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion, History of Religion, volume 15, pages 108-112</ref> Their role changes only during and after the earth, sky and living beings have been created. The sky world becomes that of ''Devas'', the underworld becomes that of ''Asuras''. Deity [[Indra]] is the protagonist of the good and the Devas, while dragon Vrtra who is also one of asuras is the protagonist of the evil.<ref name=kuiper/> During this battle between good and evil, creation and destruction, some powerful Asuras side with the good and are called Devas, other powerful Asuras side with the evil and thereafter called Asuras. This is the first major [[dualism]] to emerge in the nature of everything in the Universe.<ref name=kuiper/><ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-2</ref> Hale, in his review, states that Kuiper theory on Asura is plausible but weak because the Vedas never call Vrtra (the central character) an Asura as the texts describe many other powerful beings.<ref name=hale3>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 3</ref> Secondly, Rigveda never classifies Asura as "group of gods" states Hale, and this is a presumption of Kuiper.<ref name=hale3/> − − Many scholars describe Asuras to be "lords" with different specialized knowledge, magical powers and special abilities, which only later choose to deploy these for good, constructive reasons or for evil, destructive reasons. The former become known as Asura in the sense of ''Devas'', the later as Asura in the sense of demons. Kuiper, Brown, Otto and others are in this school; however, none of them provide an explanation and how, when and why Asura came ultimately to mean demon.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 2-4, 10</ref> − − Ananda Coomaraswamy suggested that Devas and Asuras can be best understood as [[Twelve Olympians|Angels-Theoi-Gods]] and [[Titan (mythology)|Titans]] of Greek mythology, both are powerful but have different orientations and inclinations, the Devas representing the powers of Light and the Asuras representing the powers of Darkness in Hindu mythology.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 20</ref><ref>Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, pages 373-374</ref> According to Coomaraswamy, "the Titan [Asura] is potentially an Angel [Deva], the Angel still by nature a Titan" in Hinduism.<ref>Ananda Coomaraswamy (1935), Angel and Titan: An Essay in Vedic Ontology, Journal of the American Oriental Society, volume 55, page 374</ref><ref name=Gier>Nicholas Gier (1995), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399510 Hindu Titanism], Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76, see also 73-96</ref> − +
no edit summary
Asuras (Samskrit : असुराः) considered as the children of Diti and Kashyapa, hence are also called as Daityas (दैत्याः). Many have negative qualities such as pride, quarrelsome nature, obstructing and interfering in the yajnas of devas, challenging and occupying the regions belonging to the Devas or Suras.
==Etymology and history==
==Etymology and history==
In the [[Samhita (संहिता)|Samhita]] texts, the ''Asuras'' are any spiritual, divine beings including those with good or bad intentions, and constructive or destructive inclinations or nature.
==Discussion==
==Discussion==
Scholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of the ''Asura'' concept in ancient Bharat's literature. The most widely studied scholarly views on ''Asura'' concept are those of [[Franciscus Bernardus Jacobus Kuiper|FBJ Kuiper]], W Norman Brown, Haug, von Bradke, Otto, Benveniste, Konow, Rajwade, Dandekar, Darmesteter, Bhandarkar and Raja, Banerji-Sastri, Padmanabhayya, Skoeld, SC Roy, [[Ananda Coomaraswamy|Coomaraswamy]], [[R. Shamasastry|Shamasastry]], Przyluski, Schroeder, Burrows, Hillebrandt, Taraporewala, Lommel, Fausboll, Segerstedt, Thieme, Gerschevitch, Boyce, Macdonnell, [[Hermann Oldenberg]], Geldner, Venkatesvaran, and [[Jan Gonda]].<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-37</ref>
Scholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of the ''Asura'' concept in ancient Bharat's literature.
===Characteristics of Asuras===
===Characteristics of Asuras===
All powerful beings, good or evil, are called Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts{{Verify source|date=December 2015}}. A much studied hymn of the Rigveda states ''Devav asura'' (Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it with ''Asura adevah'' (Asuras who are not Devas).<ref name=kuiper/><ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-2; Note: Hale translates this to "Asuras without the Asura-Devas" in his book, see page 3 for example.;<br>For original Sanskrit, see Rigveda hymns 8.25.4 and 8.96.9 [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेदः_मण्डल_८ Rigveda - Wikisource]</ref> Each Asura and Deva emerges from the same father (''Prajapati''), share the same residence (''Loka''), eat together the same food and drinks (''Soma''), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asura who become Deva" from "Asura who remain Asura" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.<ref name=Gier/><ref name=yves>Yves Bonnefoy and Wendy Doniger (1993), Asian Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226064567, pages 52-53</ref>
All powerful beings, good or evil, are called Asuras in the oldest layer of Vedic texts. A much studied hymn of the Rigveda states ''Devav asura'' (Asuras who have become Devas), and contrasts it with ''Asura adevah'' (Asuras who are not Devas).<ref name="kuiper">FBJ Kuiper (1975), The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion, History of Religion, volume 15, pages 108-112</ref><ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-2; Note: Hale translates this to "Asuras without the Asura-Devas" in his book, see page 3 for example.;<br>For original Sanskrit, see Rigveda hymns 8.25.4 and 8.96.9 [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/ऋग्वेदः_मण्डल_८ Rigveda - Wikisource]</ref> Each Asura and Deva emerges from the same father (''Prajapati''), share the same residence (''Loka''), eat together the same food and drinks (''Soma''), and have innate potential, knowledge and special powers in Hindu mythology; the only thing that distinguishes "Asura who become Deva" from "Asura who remain Asura" is intent, action and choices they make in their mythic lives.<ref name="Gier">Nicholas Gier (1995), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399510 Hindu Titanism], Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76, see also 73-96</ref><ref name=yves>Yves Bonnefoy and Wendy Doniger (1993), Asian Mythologies, University of Chicago Press, ISBN 978-0226064567, pages 52-53</ref>
"Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful beings obsessed with their craving for ill gotten ''Soma'' and wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled nature, force and violence.<ref name=gierasurach/><ref name=stellaray/> Further, when they lose, miss or don't get what they want because they were distracted by their cravings, the "Asuras who remain Asuras" question, challenge and attack the "Asuras who become Devas" to loot and get a share from what Devas have and they don't, in Hindu mythology.<ref name=gierasurach>Nicholas Gier (1995), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399510 Hindu Titanism], Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76-80</ref><ref name=stellaray>Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier (1986), The Hindu Temple, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802230, pages 75-78</ref> The hostility between the two is the source of extensive legends, tales and literature in Hinduism; however, many texts discuss their hostility in neutral terms and without explicit moral connotations or condemnation.<ref name=yves/> Some of these tales are the basis for myths behind major Hindu Epics and annual festivals, such as the story of Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in the [[Ramayana]] and the legend of Asura [[Hiranyakashipu]] and Deva Vishnu as [[Narasimha]],<ref name=yves/> the latter celebrated with the Hindu spring festival of [[Holika]] and [[Holi]].<ref>Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster, ISBN 978-0877790440, page 455</ref>
"Asuras who remain Asura" share the character of powerful beings obsessed with their craving for ill gotten ''Soma'' and wealth, ego, anger, unprincipled nature, force and violence.<ref name=gierasurach/><ref name=stellaray/> Further, when they lose, miss or don't get what they want because they were distracted by their cravings, the "Asuras who remain Asuras" question, challenge and attack the "Asuras who become Devas" to loot and get a share from what Devas have and they don't, in Hindu mythology.<ref name=gierasurach>Nicholas Gier (1995), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/1399510 Hindu Titanism], Philosophy East and West, Volume 45, Number 1, pages 76-80</ref><ref name=stellaray>Stella Kramrisch and Raymond Burnier (1986), The Hindu Temple, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120802230, pages 75-78</ref> The hostility between the two is the source of extensive legends, tales and literature in Hinduism; however, many texts discuss their hostility in neutral terms and without explicit moral connotations or condemnation.<ref name=yves/> Some of these tales are the basis for myths behind major Hindu Epics and annual festivals, such as the story of Asura Ravana and Deva Rama in the [[Ramayana]] and the legend of Asura [[Hiranyakashipu]] and Deva Vishnu as [[Narasimha]],<ref name=yves/> the latter celebrated with the Hindu spring festival of [[Holika]] and [[Holi]].<ref>Wendy Doniger (2000), Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions, Merriam-Webster, ISBN 978-0877790440, page 455</ref>