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'''Asuras''' ({{lang-sa|असुर}}) are mythological lord beings in Indian and Persian (Ariæns) texts who compete for power with the more benevolent [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] (also known as ''suras''). Asuras are described in Indian texts as powerful superhuman demigods or demons with good or bad qualities. The good Asuras are called ''[[Adityas]]'' and are led by [[Varuna]], while the malevolent ones are called ''[[Danava (Hinduism)|Danavas]]'' and are led by [[Vritra]].

'''Asuras''' ({{lang-sa|असुर}}) are mythological lord beings in Bharat's and Persian (Ariæns) texts who compete for power with the more benevolent [[Deva (Hinduism)|devas]] (also known as ''suras''). Asuras are described in Bharat's texts as powerful superhuman demigods or demons with good or bad qualities. The good Asuras are called ''[[Adityas]]'' and are led by [[Varuna]], while the malevolent ones are called ''[[Danava (Hinduism)|Danavas]]'' and are led by [[Vritra]].

In the earliest layer of Vedic texts Agni, Indra and other gods are also called Asuras, in the sense of them being "lords" of their respective domains, knowledge and abilities. In later Vedic and post-Vedic texts, the benevolent gods are called ''Devas'', while malevolent Asuras compete against these Devas and are considered "enemy of the gods" or demons.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 5-11, 22, 99-102</ref>

In the earliest layer of Vedic texts Agni, Indra and other gods are also called Asuras, in the sense of them being "lords" of their respective domains, knowledge and abilities. In later Vedic and post-Vedic texts, the benevolent gods are called ''Devas'', while malevolent Asuras compete against these Devas and are considered "enemy of the gods" or demons.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 5-11, 22, 99-102</ref>

Asuras are part of Indian mythology along with Devas, [[Yaksha]] (nature spirits) and [[Rakshasa]]s (ghosts, ogres), and Asuras feature in one of many cosmological theories in [[Hinduism]].<ref>Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Indian Cosmology, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004256156, pages 23-29</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0719018664, page 67</ref>

Asuras are part of Bharat's mythology along with Devas, [[Yaksha]] (nature spirits) and [[Rakshasa]]s (ghosts, ogres), and Asuras feature in one of many cosmological theories in [[Hinduism]].<ref>Don Handelman (2013), One God, Two Goddesses, Three Studies of South Bharat's Cosmology, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004256156, pages 23-29</ref><ref>Wendy Doniger (1988), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-0719018664, page 67</ref>

==Etymology and history==

==Etymology and history==

|Rigveda 1.35.10}}

|Rigveda 1.35.10}}

In later texts, such as the [[Puranas]] and the [[Itihasas]] with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.<ref>Nicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Indian, Chinese, and Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791445280, pages 59-76</ref><ref name=fowlergita/> According to the [[Bhagavad Gita]] (16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (''daivi sampad'') and the demonic qualities (''asuri sampad'') within each.<ref name=fowlergita/><ref name=chrischapple/> The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults.<ref name=fowlergita/> According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).<ref name=fowlergita>Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 253-262</ref><ref name=chrischapple>Christopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages 610-629</ref>

In later texts, such as the [[Puranas]] and the [[Itihasas]] with the embedded Bhagavad Gita, the Devas represent the good, and the Asuras the bad.<ref>Nicholas Gier (2000), Spiritual Titanism: Bharat's, Chinese, and Western Perspectives, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-0791445280, pages 59-76</ref><ref name=fowlergita/> According to the [[Bhagavad Gita]] (16.6-16.7), all beings in the universe have both the divine qualities (''daivi sampad'') and the demonic qualities (''asuri sampad'') within each.<ref name=fowlergita/><ref name=chrischapple/> The sixteenth chapter of the Bhagavad Gita states that pure god-like saints are rare and pure demon-like evil are rare among human beings, and the bulk of humanity is multi-charactered with a few or many faults.<ref name=fowlergita/> According to Jeaneane Fowler, the Gita states that desires, aversions, greed, needs, emotions in various forms "are facets of ordinary lives", and it is only when they turn to lust, hate, cravings, arrogance, conceit, anger, harshness, hypocrisy, cruelty and such negativity- and destruction-inclined that natural human inclinations metamorphose into something demonic (Asura).<ref name=fowlergita>Jeaneane D Fowler (2012), The Bhagavad Gita, Sussex Academic Press, ISBN 978-1845193461, pages 253-262</ref><ref name=chrischapple>Christopher K Chapple (2010), The Bhagavad Gita: Twenty-fifth–Anniversary Edition, State University of New York Press, ISBN 978-1438428420, pages 610-629</ref>

[[Asko Parpola]] traces the etymological root of ''Asura'' to *asera- of [[Uralic languages]], where it means "lord, prince".<ref name=asko>Asko Parpola (2015), The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0190226923, pages 114-116</ref>

[[Asko Parpola]] traces the etymological root of ''Asura'' to *asera- of [[Uralic languages]], where it means "lord, prince".<ref name=asko>Asko Parpola (2015), The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0190226923, pages 114-116</ref>

==Discussion==

==Discussion==

Scholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of the ''Asura'' concept in ancient Indian literature. The most widely studied scholarly views on ''Asura'' concept are those of [[Franciscus Bernardus Jacobus Kuiper|FBJ Kuiper]], W Norman Brown, Haug, von Bradke, Otto, Benveniste, Konow, Rajwade, Dandekar, Darmesteter, Bhandarkar and Raja, Banerji-Sastri, Padmanabhayya, Skoeld, SC Roy, [[Ananda Coomaraswamy|Coomaraswamy]], [[R. Shamasastry|Shamasastry]], Przyluski, Schroeder, Burrows, Hillebrandt, Taraporewala, Lommel, Fausboll, Segerstedt, Thieme, Gerschevitch, Boyce, Macdonnell, [[Hermann Oldenberg]], Geldner, Venkatesvaran, and [[Jan Gonda]].<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-37</ref>

Scholars have disagreed on the nature and evolution of the ''Asura'' concept in ancient Bharat's literature. The most widely studied scholarly views on ''Asura'' concept are those of [[Franciscus Bernardus Jacobus Kuiper|FBJ Kuiper]], W Norman Brown, Haug, von Bradke, Otto, Benveniste, Konow, Rajwade, Dandekar, Darmesteter, Bhandarkar and Raja, Banerji-Sastri, Padmanabhayya, Skoeld, SC Roy, [[Ananda Coomaraswamy|Coomaraswamy]], [[R. Shamasastry|Shamasastry]], Przyluski, Schroeder, Burrows, Hillebrandt, Taraporewala, Lommel, Fausboll, Segerstedt, Thieme, Gerschevitch, Boyce, Macdonnell, [[Hermann Oldenberg]], Geldner, Venkatesvaran, and [[Jan Gonda]].<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-37</ref>

Kuiper calls ''Asuras'' a special group of gods in one of major Vedic theories of creation of the universe.<ref name=kuiper>FBJ Kuiper (1975), The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion, History of Religion, volume 15, pages 108-112</ref> Their role changes only during and after the earth, sky and living beings have been created. The sky world becomes that of ''Devas'', the underworld becomes that of ''Asuras''. Deity [[Indra]] is the protagonist of the good and the Devas, while dragon Vrtra who is also one of asuras is the protagonist of the evil.<ref name=kuiper/> During this battle between good and evil, creation and destruction, some powerful Asuras side with the good and are called Devas, other powerful Asuras side with the evil and thereafter called Asuras. This is the first major [[dualism]] to emerge in the nature of everything in the Universe.<ref name=kuiper/><ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-2</ref> Hale, in his review, states that Kuiper theory on Asura is plausible but weak because the Vedas never call Vrtra (the central character) an Asura as the texts describe many other powerful beings.<ref name=hale3>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 3</ref> Secondly, Rigveda never classifies Asura as "group of gods" states Hale, and this is a presumption of Kuiper.<ref name=hale3/>

Kuiper calls ''Asuras'' a special group of gods in one of major Vedic theories of creation of the universe.<ref name=kuiper>FBJ Kuiper (1975), The Basic Concept of Vedic Religion, History of Religion, volume 15, pages 108-112</ref> Their role changes only during and after the earth, sky and living beings have been created. The sky world becomes that of ''Devas'', the underworld becomes that of ''Asuras''. Deity [[Indra]] is the protagonist of the good and the Devas, while dragon Vrtra who is also one of asuras is the protagonist of the evil.<ref name=kuiper/> During this battle between good and evil, creation and destruction, some powerful Asuras side with the good and are called Devas, other powerful Asuras side with the evil and thereafter called Asuras. This is the first major [[dualism]] to emerge in the nature of everything in the Universe.<ref name=kuiper/><ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 1-2</ref> Hale, in his review, states that Kuiper theory on Asura is plausible but weak because the Vedas never call Vrtra (the central character) an Asura as the texts describe many other powerful beings.<ref name=hale3>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 3</ref> Secondly, Rigveda never classifies Asura as "group of gods" states Hale, and this is a presumption of Kuiper.<ref name=hale3/>

===Symbolism===

===Symbolism===

Edelmann and other scholars state that the dualistic concept of Asura and Deva in Hinduism is a form of symbolism found throughout its ancient and medieval literature.<ref>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 427-466</ref><ref>Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Indian Art, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 130-131</ref> In the [[Upanishad]]s, for example, Devas and Asuras go to Prajāpati to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies.<ref name=edelmann14/> Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort.<ref name=edelmann14/> Similar dichotomies are present in the [[Purana]]s literature of Hinduism, where god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.<ref name=edelmann14/> Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".<ref name=edelmann14>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 439-441</ref>

Edelmann and other scholars state that the dualistic concept of Asura and Deva in Hinduism is a form of symbolism found throughout its ancient and medieval literature.<ref>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 427-466</ref><ref>Doris Srinivasan (1997), Many Heads, Arms and Eyes: Origin, Meaning, and Form of Multiplicity in Bharat's Art, Brill Academic, ISBN 978-9004107588, pages 130-131</ref> In the [[Upanishad]]s, for example, Devas and Asuras go to Prajāpati to understand what is Self (Atman, soul) and how to realize it. The first answer that Prajāpati gives is simplistic, which the Asuras accept and leave with, but the Devas led by Indra do not accept and question because Indra finds that he hasn't grasped its full significance and the given answer has inconsistencies.<ref name=edelmann14/> Edelmann states that this symbolism embedded in the Upanishads is a reminder that one must struggle with presented ideas, learning is a process, and Deva nature emerges with effort.<ref name=edelmann14/> Similar dichotomies are present in the [[Purana]]s literature of Hinduism, where god Indra (a Deva) and the antigod Virocana (an Asura) question a sage for insights into the knowledge of the self.<ref name=edelmann14/> Virocana leaves with the first given answer, believing now he can use the knowledge as a weapon. In contrast, Indra keeps pressing the sage, churning the ideas, and learning about means to inner happiness and power. Edelmann suggests that the Deva-Asura dichotomies in Hindu mythology may be seen as "narrative depictions of tendencies within our selves".<ref name=edelmann14>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 439-441</ref>

The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.<ref name=edelmann13/> In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as [[Mahabali]] and [[Prahlada]], conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.<ref name=edelmann13>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 440-442</ref>

The god (Deva) and antigod (Asura), states Edelmann, are also symbolically the contradictory forces that motivate each individual and people, and thus Deva-Asura dichotomy is a spiritual concept rather than mere genealogical category or species of being.<ref name=edelmann13/> In the Bhāgavata Purana, saints and gods are born in families of Asuras, such as [[Mahabali]] and [[Prahlada]], conveying the symbolism that motivations, beliefs and actions rather than one's birth and family circumstances define whether one is Deva-like or Asura-like.<ref name=edelmann13>Jonathan Edelmann (2013), Hindu Theology as Churning the Latent, Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Volume 81, Issue 2, pages 440-442</ref>

==Asuri==

==Asuri==

Asuri is the feminine of an adjective from asura and in later texts means ''belonging to or having to do with demons and spirits''.<ref>American Oriental Society (1852). Proceedings (American Oriental Society) 1874-1893, p.xv</ref> Asuri parallels Asura in being "powerful beings", and in early Vedic texts includes all goddesses.<ref name="hale"/><ref>Coburn, Thomas B. (1988). Devī-Māhātmya, p.200. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 8120805577</ref> The term Asuri also means a [[Rakshasa|Rakshasi]] in Indian texts.<ref>[[Henk Bodewitz|Bodewitz, H. W.]] (1990). The Jyotiṣṭoma Ritual: Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa I, 66-364, p.265. Volume 34 of Orientalia Rheno-traiectina. ISBN 9004091203</ref>

Asuri is the feminine of an adjective from asura and in later texts means ''belonging to or having to do with demons and spirits''.<ref>American Oriental Society (1852). Proceedings (American Oriental Society) 1874-1893, p.xv</ref> Asuri parallels Asura in being "powerful beings", and in early Vedic texts includes all goddesses.<ref name="hale"/><ref>Coburn, Thomas B. (1988). Devī-Māhātmya, p.200. Motilal Banarsidass Publications. ISBN 8120805577</ref> The term Asuri also means a [[Rakshasa|Rakshasi]] in Bharat's texts.<ref>[[Henk Bodewitz|Bodewitz, H. W.]] (1990). The Jyotiṣṭoma Ritual: Jaiminīya Brāhmaṇa I, 66-364, p.265. Volume 34 of Orientalia Rheno-traiectina. ISBN 9004091203</ref>

The powers of an Asuri are projected into plants offering a remedy against [[leprosy]].<ref>Shende, N.J. (1967). Kavi and kāvya in the Atharvaveda, p. 22. Issue 1 of Publications of the Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit, Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit, University of Poona</ref><ref name="garg">Garg, Gaṅgā Rām (1992). Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World: Ar-Az, p.751. Volume 3 of Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 8170223733</ref>

The powers of an Asuri are projected into plants offering a remedy against [[leprosy]].<ref>Shende, N.J. (1967). Kavi and kāvya in the Atharvaveda, p. 22. Issue 1 of Publications of the Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit, Centre of Advanced Study in Sanskrit, University of Poona</ref><ref name="garg">Garg, Gaṅgā Rām (1992). Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World: Ar-Az, p.751. Volume 3 of Encyclopaedia of the Hindu World. Concept Publishing Company. ISBN 8170223733</ref>

===Shiva Purana===

===Shiva Purana===

Alain Daniélou states that Asuras were initially good, virtuous and powerful in Indian mythology. However, their nature gradually changed and they came to represent evil, vice and abuse of power. In Shiva Purana, they evolved into anti-gods and had to be destroyed because they threatened the gods.<ref name="Alain">Alain Daniélou (1991). ''The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series'', [http://books.google.co.in/books?id=1HMXN9h6WX0C&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q=&f=false pp. 141–142]. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN 0892813547.</ref><ref name="dalal"/>

Alain Daniélou states that Asuras were initially good, virtuous and powerful in Bharat's mythology. However, their nature gradually changed and they came to represent evil, vice and abuse of power. In Shiva Purana, they evolved into anti-gods and had to be destroyed because they threatened the gods.<ref name="Alain">Alain Daniélou (1991). ''The Myths and Gods of India: The Classic Work on Hindu Polytheism from the Princeton Bollingen Series'', [http://books.google.co.in/books?id=1HMXN9h6WX0C&pg=PA141#v=onepage&q=&f=false pp. 141–142]. Inner Traditions / Bear & Co. ISBN 0892813547.</ref><ref name="dalal"/>

The asuras (anti-gods) were depicted to have become proud, vain, to have stopped performing sacrifices, to violate sacred laws, not visit holy places, not cleanse themselves from sin, to be envious of devas, torturous of living beings, creating confusion in everything and challenging the devas.<ref name="dalal"/><ref name="Alain"/>

The asuras (anti-gods) were depicted to have become proud, vain, to have stopped performing sacrifices, to violate sacred laws, not visit holy places, not cleanse themselves from sin, to be envious of devas, torturous of living beings, creating confusion in everything and challenging the devas.<ref name="dalal"/><ref name="Alain"/>