Changes

While Jnana is used to denote knowledge from the psychological standpoint that helps in cognition of an object, Prama is used to indicate true knowledge in the logical sense, which denotes ability of recognizing the real nature and character of an object.  

While Jnana is used to denote knowledge from the psychological standpoint that helps in cognition of an object, Prama is used to indicate true knowledge in the logical sense, which denotes ability of recognizing the real nature and character of an object.  

Four basic factors make up the system of recognition. Vatsyayana Bhashya of Nyayasutras defines the 4 components as follows<blockquote>तत्र यस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य प्रवृत्तिः स प्रमाता । स येनार्थं प्रमिणोति तत्प्रमाणं । योऽर्थः प्रतीयते तत्प्रमेयं । यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । चतसृषु चैवंविधास्वार्थतत्वं परिसमाप्यते । <ref>Pt. Gangadhara Sastri Tailanga. (1896) The Nyayasutras with Vatsayana's Bhashya and Extracts from the Nyayavarttika and the Tatparyatika. ([https://archive.org/details/NyayaBhashyam-GangadharaTailanga/page/n48 Page 48 of PDF]) Benares : E. J. Lazarus & Co</ref></blockquote>

Four basic factors make up the system of recognition. Vatsyayana Bhashya of Nyayasutras defines the 4 components as follows<blockquote>तत्र यस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य प्रवृत्तिः स प्रमाता । स येनार्थं प्रमिणोति तत्प्रमाणं । योऽर्थः प्रतीयते तत्प्रमेयं । यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । चतसृषु चैवंविधास्वार्थतत्वं परिसमाप्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5">Pt. Gangadhara Sastri Tailanga. (1896) The Nyayasutras with Vatsayana's Bhashya and Extracts from the Nyayavarttika and the Tatparyatika. ([https://archive.org/details/NyayaBhashyam-GangadharaTailanga/page/n48 Page 48 of PDF]) Benares : E. J. Lazarus & Co</ref></blockquote>

#The Prama (प्रमा) or Pramiti  : the valid knowledge (of an object), the right understanding

#The Prama (प्रमा) or Pramiti  : the valid knowledge (of an object), the right understanding

#The Prameya (प्रमेयः) : the knowable, the object to be known, the object of valid knowledge

#The Prameya (प्रमेयः) : the knowable, the object to be known, the object of valid knowledge

#The Pramana (प्रमाणम्) : the instrument with which Prameya is evaluated and known and is the chief instrument of valid knowledge

#The Pramana (प्रमाणम्) : the instrument with which Prameya is evaluated and known and is the chief instrument of valid knowledge

#The Pramaata (प्रमाता) : the knower of object, the cognizer of valid knowledge, one who uses pramana.

#The Pramaata (प्रमाता) : the knower of object, the cognizer of valid knowledge, one who uses pramana.

Thus a Pramaata (knower of object) validates the Prama (right understanding) of a Prameya (the object to be known) through the means of Pramana (the instrument of that knowledge). All these four are required for the completion of  Arthatattva. So it can be said that valid knowledge is not possible if any one of them is absent. Western theories of philosophy use three factors namely, subject, object, and the resultant knowledge. Indian philosophy is distinct and unique in that the means or instrument of valid cognition or knowledge i.e., pramana.

Thus a Pramaata (knower of object) validates the Prama (right understanding) of a Prameya (the object to be known) through the means of Pramana (the instrument of that knowledge). All these four are required for the completion of  Arthatattva. So it can be said that valid knowledge is not possible if any one of them is absent. Western theories of philosophy use three factors namely, subject, object, and the resultant knowledge. Indian philosophy is distinct and unique in that the means or instrument of valid cognition or knowledge i.e., pramana.<ref name=":3" />

Example : A very simplified common place example of these 4 constituents  of Arthatattva may be given as about purchase fruits or vegetables in a market.  

Example : A very simplified common place example of these 4 constituents  of Arthatattva may be given as about purchase fruits or vegetables in a market.  

According to Nyaya, as given previously Prama is a definite or certain (असं दिग्धम् । asandigdha), unerring (यथार्थ । yatartha) knowledge and it consists of knowing the object as it is.   

According to Nyaya, as given previously Prama is a definite or certain (असं दिग्धम् । asandigdha), unerring (यथार्थ । yatartha) knowledge and it consists of knowing the object as it is.   

Annambhatta in his Tarkasangraha explains, Yatartha jnana is Prama. He clearly defines the difference between Prama and Aprama as follows<blockquote>॥ तद्वति तप्रकारकोऽनुभवो यथार्थः। यथा रजते इदं रजतमिति ज्ञानम्। सैव प्रमेच्युते ॥१९॥॥ <ref name=":2">Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Gunalakshana Prakarana])</ref></blockquote>Summary : Thus Prama is that which pertains to यथार्थानुभवः। definite knowledge of an object which is true presentational in character, just as the knowledge an object of silver as "this is silver". Here the knowledge about the quality of silverness (रजतत्वम्) of the object is ''in toto'' without any distortion to silver.

Annambhatta in his Tarkasangraha explains, Yatartha jnana is Prama. He clearly defines the difference between Prama and Aprama as follows<blockquote>॥ तद्वति तप्रकारकोऽनुभवो यथार्थः। यथा रजते इदं रजतमिति ज्ञानम्। सैव प्रमेच्युते ॥१९॥॥ (Tark. Samg. 3.19)<ref name=":2">Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Gunalakshana Prakarana])</ref></blockquote>Summary : Thus Prama is that which pertains to यथार्थानुभवः। definite knowledge of an object which is true presentational in character, just as the knowledge an object of silver as "this is silver". Here the knowledge about the quality of silverness (रजतत्वम्) of the object is ''in toto'' without any distortion to silver.

But knowledge is invalid (अयथार्थ । ayatartha) when a character not possessed by the object of cognition is attributed to that object and is called Aprama.<ref name=":3">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy. [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf (Chapter 2)] University of North Bengal</ref><blockquote>तदभाववति तत्प्रकारकोऽनुभवोऽयथार्थः। यथा शुक्ताविदं रजतमिति। सैव अप्रमा इत्युच्यते॥२०॥<ref name=":2" /></blockquote>Summary : When a piece of shell is called "this is silver", then the cognition is invalid. For in this case "silverness" is a quality which does not belong to the shell but is being attributed to it is called Aprama.<ref name=":3" />

But knowledge is invalid (अयथार्थ । ayatartha) when a character not possessed by the object of cognition is attributed to that object and is called Aprama.<ref name=":3">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy. [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf (Chapter 2)] University of North Bengal</ref><blockquote>तदभाववति तत्प्रकारकोऽनुभवोऽयथार्थः। यथा शुक्ताविदं रजतमिति। सैव अप्रमा इत्युच्यते॥२०॥ (Tark. Samg. 3.20)<ref name=":2" /></blockquote>Summary : When a piece of shell is called "this is silver", then the cognition is invalid. For in this case "silverness" is a quality which does not belong to the shell but is being attributed to it is called Aprama.<ref name=":3" />

Thus Prama has two aspects  

Thus Prama has two aspects  

=== प्रमाणम् ॥ Pramanam ===

=== प्रमाणम् ॥ Pramanam ===

Pramana i.e., the instrument of Prama is the most fundamental and unique about the tattva shastras. Nyaya darshana deals extensively about the siddhantas of jnana (theory of Knowledge). The means of Prama (valid cognition) is termed Pramana as explained by the Vatsyayana bhashya given below.<blockquote>प्रमाणतोऽर्थप्रतिपत्तौ प्रवृत्तिसामर्ध्यादर्थवत् प्रमाणम् ॥... </blockquote><blockquote>तस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य... प्रवृत्ति</blockquote>The effort of the agent stimulated this desire to acquire (ईप्सा) and the desire to get rid of the thing Jihasa roga etc) is what is called exertion (pravrti).<ref>Ganganath Jha ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Sutra 1])</ref> Two of these together inspire by  Prvritti or Action. <blockquote>अर्थस्तु सुखं सुखहेतुः दुखं दुखहेतुश्च</blockquote>Page 22 of Jha's book.

Pramana i.e., the instrument of Prama is the most fundamental and unique about the tattva shastras. Nyaya darshana deals extensively about the siddhantas of jnana (theory of Knowledge). The means of Prama (valid cognition) is termed Pramana as explained by the Vatsyayana bhashya given below.<blockquote>प्रमाणतोऽर्थप्रतिपत्तौ प्रवृत्तिसामर्थ्थदर्थवत् प्रमाणम् ।... तस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य समीहा प्रवृत्तिरित्युच्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /> </blockquote>Meaning : The effort of the agent (man) stimulated by the desire to acquire (Ipsa । ईप्सा) and the desire to get rid of the thing (जिहासा । Jihasa roga etc) is what is called प्रवृत्तिः (pravrtti । exertion). Two of these together inspire the agent into Prvritti or Action. (Page 20 of Reference <ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) Gautama's Nyayasutras With Vatsyayana Bhashya. Poona : Oriental Book Agency. ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Page no 20])</ref>) <blockquote>अर्थस्तु सुखं सुखहेतुः दुखं दुखहेतुश्च । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>Summary : The अर्थ (object or thing) cognised by means of Pramana, or the instrument of cognition is of four kinds, viz., Pleasure, Source of Pleasure, Pain, Source of Pain. These objects of cognition, however, are innumerable owing to the fact of the number of living creatures being infinite. (Page 22 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

 

Gautama in his Nyayasutras lays down that there are four kinds of Pramanas.  

===  प्रमाता ॥ Pramata ===

===  प्रमाता ॥ Pramata ===

== प्रमाणसङ्ख्या ॥ Number of Pramanas ==

== प्रमाणसङ्ख्या ॥ Number of Pramanas ==

Pramanas though are ten in number, though 6 (Shadpramanas) of them are widely accepted though major schools of darshanas  

Pramanas though are ten in number, though 6 (Shadpramanas) of them are widely accepted though major schools of darshanas  

#Pratyaksha (perception)

#प्रत्यक्षम् ॥ Pratyaksha (perception)

#Anumana (inference)

#अनुमानम् ॥ Anumana (inference)

#Shabda or aagama (verbal testimony)

#शब्दः ॥ Shabda or aagama (verbal testimony)

#Upamana (comparison)

#उपमानम् ॥ Upamana (comparison)

#Arthaapatti (presumption)

#अर्थापत्तिः ॥ Arthaapatti (presumption)

#Abhaava (negation or non-apprehension)

#अभावः ॥ Abhaava (negation or non-apprehension)

A brief description of all the Pramanas are as follows

Gautama in his Nyayasutras lays down that there are four kinds of Pramanas. Pratyaksha (Perception), Anumana (Inference), Upamana (Analogy) and Shabda (Words) are the Pramanas. (Page 36 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)<blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ।।३।। {प्रमाणौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3) <ref name=":4" /> </blockquote>

 

===Pratyaksha Pramana===

===Pratyaksha Pramana===

[[Pratyaksha]] (Samskrit : ) pramana  is made of two words Prati and Aksha.  Meaning : In front of the eyes. Knowledge which is produced by the contact of a sense-organ with an object. Perception is a source of direct knowledge and leads one to apprehend the reality. All other means of knowledge are indirect sources of apprehending reality. Example: When the sense-organ, i.e. eye, comes in direct contact with a pot, there arises a perceptual knowledge of pot.  

Pratyaksha pramana  (Samskrit : प्रत्यक्षप्रमाणम्) is made of two words Prati and Aksha, which literally means "In front of the eyes". Knowledge which is produced by the contact of a sense-organ with an object is pratyaksha.

 

 

Perception is a source of direct knowledge and leads one to apprehend the reality. All other means of knowledge are indirect sources of apprehending reality. Example: When the sense-organ, i.e. eye, comes in direct contact with a pot, there arises a perceptual knowledge of pot.  

According to Nyaya Sutra<blockquote>इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षोत्पन्नं ज्ञानं अव्यपदेश्यं अव्यभिचारि व्यवसायात्मकं प्रत्यक्षम् ।।४।।{प्रत्यक्षलक्षणम्} <ref name=":4">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref> </blockquote>According to Vatsyayana Bhasyam of Nyaya sutra (1.1.4)<ref>Gangantha Jha [https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras Translation]</ref> <blockquote>इन्द्रियस्यार्थेन सन्निकर्षादुत्पद्यते यत् ज्ञानं, तत् प्रत्यक्षम् ॥</blockquote>not expressible by words, not erroneous, doubtless with crystal clear clarity

According to Nyaya Sutra<blockquote>इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षोत्पन्नं ज्ञानं अव्यपदेश्यं अव्यभिचारि व्यवसायात्मकं प्रत्यक्षम् ।।४।।{प्रत्यक्षलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.4)<ref name=":4">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref> </blockquote>According to Vatsyayana Bhasyam of Nyaya sutra (1.1.4) <blockquote>इन्द्रियस्यार्थेन सन्निकर्षाद् उत्पद्यते यत् ज्ञानं, तत् प्रत्यक्षम् ॥ (Vats. Bhas. Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.4) (Page 58 of Reference <ref name=":5" />)</blockquote>Meaning : Sense perception is that cognition which is

# अव्यपदेश्यं not expressible by words

# अव्यभिचारि not erroneous

# व्यवसायात्मकं doubtless with crystal clear clarity (well-defined)

According to Annambhatta's Tarkasangraha<blockquote>इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षजन्यं ज्ञानं प्रत्यक्षम्। <ref>Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Pratyakshanirupanam])</ref></blockquote>Pratyaksha pramana is the primary and fundamental of all the sources of valid knowledge and it is universally recognized so by all schools of philosophy. According to Nyaya , perception is not the only source of our knowledge, but is the basis of the other sources or means of knowledge.

According to Annambhatta's Tarkasangraha<blockquote>इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षजन्यं ज्ञानं प्रत्यक्षम्। <ref>Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Pratyakshanirupanam])</ref></blockquote>

===Anumana Pramana===

===Anumana Pramana===

According to Nyaya sutras  

According to Nyaya sutras