Changes

According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. They possess certain characteristic properties and potentials of sense stimuli.<ref name=":4">R. Priyadaranjan (1986). Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India: Science and Technology'' (Vol. 6, pp. 136-151). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref>  

According to Maharshi Kanada, every material of this universe is made up of kana or parmanu (atom) which are invisible, indivisible, eternal and indestructible. They possess certain characteristic properties and potentials of sense stimuli.<ref name=":4">R. Priyadaranjan (1986). Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India. In P. Ray & S. N. Sen (Eds.), ''The Cultural Heritage of India: Science and Technology'' (Vol. 6, pp. 136-151). The Ramakrishna Mission Institute of Culture.</ref>  

  The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).

  The Vaiseshika sutras<ref name=":3">Gupta, B. (2012). ''An introduction to Indian philosophy: Perspectives on Reality, Knowledge, and Freedom''. Routledge.</ref>, define and explain the nature of dravya or substance, and classifies all dravyas or things of the world into nine: Earth, water, fire, air, ether/space, time, space, atman and manas (mind).

Among these nine, the first four, namely, earth, water, fire and air are considered to be atomic in nature. Each element has own class of atoms with particular attributes by which they can be differentiated, i.e., qualitatively. Maharshi Kanada recognized them as four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>

Among these nine, the first four, namely, earth, water, fire and air are considered to be atomic in nature. Each element has own class of atoms with particular attributes by which they can be differentiated, i.e., qualitatively. Maharshi Kanada recognized them as four kinds of atoms each having a unique quality or guna<ref name=":13" /><ref name=":1">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref><ref name=":5">Narayan, R. (2007). ''Nyaya-Vaisheshika: The Indian Tradition of Physics''. <nowiki>https://www.researchgate.net/publication/1880033</nowiki></ref>

#kshiti or earth - smell

#kshiti or earth - smell

#tejas or fire - color

#tejas or fire - color

#vayu or air - touch

#vayu or air - touch

These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are whole (avayavin) and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha.  

These four are knowable by outer perception. The substances of earth, water, fire, and air are eternal and non-eternal. The atoms of these four substances are whole (avayavin) and eternal, because as partless they can neither be produced nor destroyed. All other objects made by the combination of atoms are non-eternal and subject to origination as well as destruction. The fifth substance, akasha or ether, has the characteristic of sound and is indivisible, eternal, and non-perceptible.<ref name=":3" /> Akasa (ether), according to Maharshi Kanada, has no atomic structure; it is inert and ubiquitous serving only as the substratum of sound which is supposed to travel in the form of waves in the manifesting medium of vayu (air).<ref name=":1" /> Atoms are the primordial infinitesimal particles of everything except space or Akasha.  

Kshiti or earth has fourteen qualities

Kshiti or earth has fourteen qualities as follows, among them its unique quality is smell or odour.<ref name=":4" />

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|

{{columns-list|colwidth=15em|style=width: 600px; font-style: italic;|

* colour

* colour

* faculty

* faculty

}}

}}

Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules. These atoms are characterized by their characteristic mass, number, quantity, basic molecular structure such as dyad, triad, etc, fluidity (or it’s opposite), viscosity (or its opposite), velocity (or quantity of impressed motion- Vega), elasticity, gravity, and other characteristic potential color, taste, smell or touch not produced by chemical operation. It is these four kinds of atoms involved in all chemical reactions while the space remains unaffected.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":1" />

 

 

 

 

 

 

Each atom has its individual characteristics, and it combines with other atoms to form the larger entities similar to molecules.<ref name=":1" />

That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.

That matter is ultimately made of indivisible building blocks, thus appeared in India as part of philosophical school of thought long before Western inventions.

*'''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.

*'''Indestructible:''' Atoms are indestructible and cannot be created or destroyed.

*'''Eternal motion''': Atoms are in a state of constant motion.

*'''Eternal motion''': Atoms are in a state of constant motion.

*'''Spherical Shape''': Despite having no magnitude, atoms are theoretically regarded as spherical (parimandaliya)

*'''Spherical Shape''': Despite having no magnitude, atoms are theoretically regarded as spherical (parimandaliya)

*'''Without Magnitude:''' They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.

*'''Without Magnitude:''' They are conceived as having no length, breadth, or thickness (infinitesimal), but their combinations produce matter of visible magnitude.

Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.

Maharshi Kanada further logically explained that density of atom in water is more than air. He also gave the theory of chemical changes and claimed that chemical changes occur because of the various factors and especially due to variations in temperature.

===Combination of Atoms===

===Combination of Atoms===

Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. The atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine driven by an inherent tendency which is their natural property to form dyads according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to our modern conception. These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> Maharshi Kanada maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc.

 

Atoms may conjoin or disjoin in reactions. The atoms of the same bhuta (element) combine driven by an inherent tendency which is their natural property to form dyads according to Prashastapada. It represents the formation of binary molecules of elementary substances according to our modern conception. One atom unites with another under an inherent impulse  to form a binary molecule or a compound of two atoms.

 

These binary molecules or dyads then combine among themselves by groups of three, four, five, etc., to produce larger aggregates in obedience to the moral law underlying the creation.<ref name=":12">Ray, P. (1956) ''History of Chemistry in Ancient and Medieval India, incorporating the History of Hindu Chemistry by Acharya Prafulla Chandra Ray.'' Calcutta: Indian Chemical Society</ref> Maharshi Kanada maintained that different atoms combine in different patterns, some in pairs, some in triads, tetrads etc.

Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads ≡ 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1

Therefore, Prashastapada's Basic unit of n dyads = 1 dyad + 1 dyad… n dyads where n ≥ 1

While Kanada's Atoms combine ≡ basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" />

While Kanada's Atoms combine = basic unit /molecule with two, three or n number of units<ref name=":5" />

Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).

Atoms possess an intrinsic vibratory or rotatory motion (parispanda).