Changes

In History of Hindu Chemistry, Sulphur has been mentioned as one of the eight uparasas, useful in operations of mercury.<ref>Ray, Prafulla Chandra. (1903) ''A history of Hindu Chemistry, from the earliest times to the middle of the sixteenth century A.D., Vol. 1''. Calcutta: The Bengal Chemical & Pharmaceutical Works, Ltd</ref> Mercury is one of the metals which attracted wide attention of ayurvedic chemists and physicians. Indeed the documentation of chemical and physical processes involving mercury is truly enormous in ancient texts of which classics by Vagabhatta and Nagarjuna are noteworthy. Among the various procedures which utilize mercury, we became interested in the one that involves mercury and sulfur.

In History of Hindu Chemistry, Sulphur has been mentioned as one of the eight uparasas, useful in operations of mercury.<ref>Ray, Prafulla Chandra. (1903) ''A history of Hindu Chemistry, from the earliest times to the middle of the sixteenth century A.D., Vol. 1''. Calcutta: The Bengal Chemical & Pharmaceutical Works, Ltd</ref> Mercury is one of the metals which attracted wide attention of ayurvedic chemists and physicians. Indeed the documentation of chemical and physical processes involving mercury is truly enormous in ancient texts of which classics by Vagabhatta and Nagarjuna are noteworthy. Among the various procedures which utilize mercury, we became interested in the one that involves mercury and sulfur.

=== Legends about Gandhak ===

=== Legends about Gandhaka ===

In Samudra manthan the menstruate of Goddess Parvati came out then its strong smell hypnotized all demons, so named as Gandhaka.<ref>Sharma Dharmanand (1999) ''Rasa Ratna Samuchhaya'' New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas Publications (pp.39-41).</ref> According to Āyurveda Prakāśa when Devī Pārvatī was playing near Kṣīrābdhi,<ref name=":6">Shankarlal Harishankar, (2019) ed. ''[https://archive.org/details/rasa-ratna-samucchaya-of-vagbhatacharya-shankar-lal-hari-shankar/page/n79/mode/2up Rasaratna Sammuchhaya by Acharya Vagbhata]'' Bombay: Khemraj Srikrishnadas Prakashan</ref> she menstruated. The Raja was very fragrant and beautiful. The cloth which was wet with Raja was then washed in the ocean. That Raja when mixed with the water converted into Gandhaka. When Deva and Dānava started churning of ocean at that time Gandhaka came out along with nector and that Gandhaka having characteristic smell pleased Deva and Dānava. Hence Deva’s gave the name Gandhaka to it.<ref name=":4" />

In Samudra manthan the menstruate of Goddess Parvati came out then its strong smell hypnotized all demons, so named as Gandhaka.<ref>Sharma Dharmanand (1999) ''Rasa Ratna Samuchhaya'' New Delhi: Motilal Banarasidas Publications (pp.39-41).</ref> According to Āyurveda Prakāśa when Devī Pārvatī was playing near Kṣīrābdhi,<ref name=":6">Shankarlal Harishankar, (2019) ed. ''[https://archive.org/details/rasa-ratna-samucchaya-of-vagbhatacharya-shankar-lal-hari-shankar/page/n79/mode/2up Rasaratna Sammuchhaya by Acharya Vagbhata]'' Bombay: Khemraj Srikrishnadas Prakashan</ref> she menstruated. The Raja was very fragrant and beautiful. The cloth which was wet with Raja was then washed in the ocean. That Raja when mixed with the water converted into Gandhaka. When Deva and Dānava started churning of ocean at that time Gandhaka came out along with nector and that Gandhaka having characteristic smell pleased Deva and Dānava. Hence Deva’s gave the name Gandhaka to it.<ref name=":4" />

Gandhaka is available in both free and bound forms. Sulfur mixed with metals is available in pure form near volcanic mountains and at other places. Sulfur is found in the form of both sulphide and sulphate compounds.<ref name=":1" /> <blockquote>निमेलस्तु रजनीसमप्रभो दीप्तिमांश्च नबनीतकोमलः । कीर्तितो ह्यमलसारसंज्ञको गन्धको रसरसायने वरः ॥|४।।  nimēlastu rajanīsamaprabhō dīptimāṁśca nabanītakōmalaḥ | kīrtitō hyamalasārasaṁjñakō gandhakō rasarasāyanē varaḥ |||4|| (Rasa. Tara. 8.4)<ref name=":5">Kashinath Shastri (1986 reprint) ed., ''Ras Tarangini Of Sadananda Sharma With Prasadani Explanation Of Haridatt Shastri And Ras Vigyan Hindi Tika Of Dharmanand Shastri''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas (pp. 174-177)</ref> </blockquote>In Rasatarangini, the qualities of gandhaka are: it should have nirmal (clean without physical impurities), Rajanisamaprabha (yellow colour as Haridra), Deeptimamscha (lustrous) and Navneetkomalah (soft like butter). Only Amalasara Gandhaka has these properties, so used for many medicinal preparations.<ref name=":3" />  

Gandhaka is available in both free and bound forms. Sulfur mixed with metals is available in pure form near volcanic mountains and at other places. Sulfur is found in the form of both sulphide and sulphate compounds.<ref name=":1" /> <blockquote>निमेलस्तु रजनीसमप्रभो दीप्तिमांश्च नबनीतकोमलः । कीर्तितो ह्यमलसारसंज्ञको गन्धको रसरसायने वरः ॥|४।।  nimēlastu rajanīsamaprabhō dīptimāṁśca nabanītakōmalaḥ | kīrtitō hyamalasārasaṁjñakō gandhakō rasarasāyanē varaḥ |||4|| (Rasa. Tara. 8.4)<ref name=":5">Kashinath Shastri (1986 reprint) ed., ''Ras Tarangini Of Sadananda Sharma With Prasadani Explanation Of Haridatt Shastri And Ras Vigyan Hindi Tika Of Dharmanand Shastri''. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidas (pp. 174-177)</ref> </blockquote>In Rasatarangini, the qualities of gandhaka are: it should have nirmal (clean without physical impurities), Rajanisamaprabha (yellow colour as Haridra), Deeptimamscha (lustrous) and Navneetkomalah (soft like butter). Only Amalasara Gandhaka has these properties, so used for many medicinal preparations.<ref name=":3" />  

== गन्धकखनिजानि ॥ Sulfur Minerals ==

== गन्धकखनिजानि ॥ Sulphur Minerals ==

Naturally Sulphur is available in the form of various minerals of sulphur. Gandhaka or Sulphur is extracted from these minerals. Some of the suphur minerals are listed below,<ref name=":1" />

Naturally Sulphur is available in the form of various minerals of sulphur. Gandhaka or Sulphur is extracted from these minerals. Some of the suphur minerals are listed below,<ref name=":1" />

* Sulphide - in Sulphide form

* Sulphide - in Sulphide form

* gem-shaped sulfur is superior.

* gem-shaped sulfur is superior.

== Physical Properties of Sulphur ==

== Properties of Sulphur ==

 

=== Physical Properties ===

Pure sulfur is a tasteless, odourless, brittle solid that is pale yellow in colour, a poor conductor of electricity, and insoluble in water. It reacts with all metals except gold and platinum, forming sulfides; it also forms compounds with several nonmetallic elements.<ref name=":0" />

Pure sulfur is a tasteless, odourless, brittle solid that is pale yellow in colour, a poor conductor of electricity, and insoluble in water. It reacts with all metals except gold and platinum, forming sulfides; it also forms compounds with several nonmetallic elements.<ref name=":0" />

'''Colloidal or d-sulphur'''

'''Colloidal or d-sulphur'''

== Uses of Sulphur ==

== Uses of Sulphur ==

=== Shodhana Process ===

=== Shodhana Process ===

Before making any pharmaceutical preparations, sulphur is exposed to a ''‘shodhana’'' procedure and there are multiple methods of ''‘shodhana’'' as described in different classics. The ''‘shodhana’'' process described in Ayurveda is not merely a purification step, but also a mechanism of transforming the physical structure of a material into a drug by aiding it to adsorb organic and inorganic substances. In the Indian context, the ''‘shodhana’'' process with ghee and cow's milk is the most common method performed for sulphur. Research involving the use of plant extracts such as Eclipta alba in the ''shodhana'' process were undertaken in one study along with a comparison to the laboratory purification method. The authors reported that although the laboratory purification method separates the sulphur from chemical impurities, the Ayurveda ‘''shodhana''’ process converts the sulphur into a state where it is more suitable as a pharmaceutical material by enhancing porosity, fragility as these qualities support to disintegration and blend with other materials during the pharmaceutical manufacturing processes.<ref>Gunaratna, T. A. N. R., Prajapati, P. K., de Silva, K. M. N., & de Silva, W. R. M. (2023). Comparision of traditional and laboratory methods of sulphur processing. ''Journal of Ayurveda and integrative medicine'', ''14''(4), 100751. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaim.2023.100751</nowiki></ref> Shodhana or the purification process thus removes the physical as well as chemical impurities.<ref name=":3" />

Before making any pharmaceutical preparations, sulphur is exposed to a ''‘shodhana’'' procedure and there are multiple methods of ''‘shodhana’'' as described in different classics. The ''‘shodhana’'' process described in Ayurveda is not merely a purification step, but also a mechanism of transforming the physical structure of a material into a drug by aiding it to adsorb organic and inorganic substances. Rasaratna Samucchaya<ref name=":7" /> describes seven methods of ''gandhaka shodhana'', using materials such as cow ghee, bhringaraja swarasa, milk, Sarshapa taila, Tila taila, Kaushumba oil, and purification by using heat. In the Indian context, the ''‘shodhana’'' process with ghee and cow's milk is the most common method performed for sulphur. Research involving the use of plant extracts such as Eclipta alba in the ''shodhana'' process were undertaken in one study along with a comparison to the laboratory purification method. The authors reported that although the laboratory purification method separates the sulphur from chemical impurities, the Ayurveda ‘''shodhana''’ process converts the sulphur into a state where it is more suitable as a pharmaceutical material by enhancing porosity, fragility as these qualities support to disintegration and blend with other materials during the pharmaceutical manufacturing processes.<ref>Gunaratna, T. A. N. R., Prajapati, P. K., de Silva, K. M. N., & de Silva, W. R. M. (2023). Comparision of traditional and laboratory methods of sulphur processing. ''Journal of Ayurveda and integrative medicine'', ''14''(4), 100751. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaim.2023.100751</nowiki></ref> Shodhana or the purification process thus removes the physical as well as chemical impurities.<ref name=":3" />

[[File:Different procedures of purification of Sulphur.png|thumb|394x394px|Different procedures of purification of Sulphur]]

[[File:Different procedures of purification of Sulphur.png|thumb|394x394px|Purification of Sulphur]]

Following is a methods of purification<ref name=":3" />

Following are some methods of purification.<ref name=":3" />

# Swedana with milk for1/2 hr then melted in Ghrit and filtered with a cloth.

# Swedana with milk for1/2 hr then melted in Ghrit and filtered with a cloth.

# Melted in Ghrit and poured in milk and allow to cool then wash with hot water. Repeat this for three times.

# Melted in Ghrit and poured in milk and allow to cool then wash with hot water. Repeat this for three times.

# Melted and poured in to Bhringraaja Swarasa. Repeat for seven times.

# Melted and poured in to Bhringraaja Swarasa. Repeat for seven times.

# In Swedani yantra, Gandhaka purified in first time.

# In Swedani yantra, Gandhaka purified the first time.

# Urdhawapatana of Gandhaka makes it best and pure.

# Urdhawapatana of Gandhaka makes it best and pure.

# Heated with limewater, then after cooling, Lavanadravaka is added drop by drop then whole Gandhaka precipitate in the bottom.

# Heated with limewater, then after cooling, Lavanadravaka is added drop by drop then whole Gandhaka precipitates at the bottom.

# Gandhaka and ¼ Tankana, pasted with Bijpurak swarasa and bhawana with Erand oil, then dried in excessive sun light.

# Gandhaka and ¼ Tankana, pasted with Bijpurak swarasa and bhawana with Erand oil, then dried in excessive sun light.

== Properties of Pure Sulfur ==

== Properties of Pure Sulfur ==

Gandhaka stands next to [[Mercury (पारद)]] in the field of Rasa-śāstra. It is considered as Rasāyana, Rakta Śodhaka and Twaka-roganāśaka. Here, the term Rasāyana stands for longevity. Blood is always a symbol of life and being Rakta Śodhaka, definitely Gandhaka and its properties give fortune. It is a unique concept of Ayurveda, which promotes the defense mechanism of the body and helps in the prevention of disease as well as their earlier cure. Gandhaka has also Guṇa-dharma like Kṛmighna, Kuṣṭhaghna, Kaṇḍughna.<ref name=":4" />

Gandhaka stands next to [[Mercury or Parada (पारद)]] in the field of Rasa-śāstra. It is considered as Rasāyana, Rakta Śodhaka and Twaka-roganāśaka. Here, the term Rasāyana stands for longevity. Blood is always a symbol of life and being Rakta Śodhaka, definitely Gandhaka and its properties give fortune. It is a unique concept of Ayurveda, which promotes the defense mechanism of the body and helps in the prevention of disease as well as their earlier cure. Gandhaka has also Guṇa-dharma like Kṛmighna, Kuṣṭhaghna, Kaṇḍughna.<ref name=":4" />

Ancient classics mention the therapeutic use of Gandhaka in treating various disorders in different therapeutic dosage forms like Rasāyana, Druti, and Taila for both internal and external uses especially in skin diseases like Kaṇḍu, Visarpa and Dadru. It is indicated in all types of Kuṣṭha (skin diseases), Nadivrana (sinuses) and Koṣṭhagata Roga (GIT disorders). It reduces and dries up the undigested food in GIT and so reduces the chance of poisoning.<ref name=":4" />

Ancient classics mention the therapeutic use of Gandhaka in treating various disorders in different therapeutic dosage forms like Rasāyana, Druti, and Taila for both internal and external uses especially in skin diseases like Kaṇḍu, Visarpa and Dadru. It is indicated in all types of Kuṣṭha (skin diseases), Nadivrana (sinuses) and Koṣṭhagata Roga (GIT disorders). It reduces and dries up the undigested food in GIT and so reduces the chance of poisoning.<ref name=":4" />

āmōnmōcanaśōṣaṇō viṣaharaḥ sutēṁdra vīryapradaḥ | plīhādhmānavināśanaḥ kr̥miharaḥ sattvātmākaḥ sūtajit ||</blockquote>Gandhaka is a best rejuvenator, having madhura rasa, katu vipaka and ushna veerya. Apart from acting as a good appetizer and digestive, it is able of curing Kandu, Kushta, Visharpa and Dadru Kustha. It reduces and dries up the undigested food and eradicates the disorders resulting out of poisoning. It overcomes the disorders like Pleeha roga, Adhmana and acts against Krimis (anti-bacterial). It is in the form of satva and capable of performing Parada bandhana, or binding of mercury.<ref name=":7" />

āmōnmōcanaśōṣaṇō viṣaharaḥ sutēṁdra vīryapradaḥ | plīhādhmānavināśanaḥ kr̥miharaḥ sattvātmākaḥ sūtajit ||</blockquote>Gandhaka is a best rejuvenator, having madhura rasa, katu vipaka and ushna veerya. Apart from acting as a good appetizer and digestive, it is able of curing Kandu, Kushta, Visharpa and Dadru Kustha. It reduces and dries up the undigested food and eradicates the disorders resulting out of poisoning. It overcomes the disorders like Pleeha roga, Adhmana and acts against Krimis (anti-bacterial). It is in the form of satva and capable of performing Parada bandhana, or binding of mercury.<ref name=":7" />

A summary of the properties of sulphur is as follows.<ref name=":3" />

A summary of the pharmacological properties of sulphur as per Rasaratna Samucchaya, Ayurveda Prakasa and Rasatarangini is as follows.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4" />

# Rasa – Madhura, Katu, Tikta.

# Rasa – Madhura, Katu, Tikta.

# Dosha Karma – Vata Shamaka, kapha Shamaka, Pitta vardhaka.

# Dosha Karma – Vata Shamaka, kapha Shamaka, Pitta vardhaka.

# Systemic Karma– Deepan, Pachana, Vishaghna, Pleehaghna, Drishti Karaka, Amadoshanashaka, Vrishya, Balya, Rasayana, Yogvahi, Shoshan, Krimighna.

# Systemic Karma– Deepan, Pachana, Vishaghna, Pleehaghna, Drishti Karaka, Amadoshanashaka, Vrishya, Balya, Rasayana, Yogvahi, Shoshan, Krimighna.

# Therapeutic uses– Kushtha, Kandu, Visarpa, Dadru, Krimi, Jwara, Kasa, Shwasa, Kshaya, Amajeerna, Garvisha-har.

# Therapeutic uses– Kushtha, Kandu, Visarpa, Adhmana, Dadru, Krimirogahara, Krishta and Phiharoga nakshaka, Twagrogahara, Jwara, Kasa, Shwasa, Kshaya, Amajeerna, Garvisha-har.

== Dosage and Diet ==

== Dosage and Diet ==