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Line 56: − − ==History== − − The Upanishads do not contain "a rigorous philosophical inquiry identifying the doctrines and formulating the supporting arguments." This philosophical inquiry was performed by the [[darsanas]], the various philosophical schools. The schools trace their antiquity far back into the [[Vedas]] and the early seers. [[Advaita Vedanta]] and [[Vishishtadvaita|Vishishtadvaita Vedanta]] existed prior to [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] and [[Ramanuja]] respectively but found their most influential expounder in them.<ref>The seven great untenables: Sapta-vidhā anupapatti. By John A Grimes. Introduction, p.7. Motilal Banarsidass 1990</ref> − − Of the Vedanta-school before the composition of the [[Brahma Sutras]] (400–450 BC) almost nothing is known. Very little also is known of the period between the Brahma Sutras and Shankara (first half of the 8th century BC). Only two writings of this period have survived: the ''Vākyapadīya'', written by [[Bhartṛhari]] (second half 5th century), and the ''Māndūkya-kārikā'' written by [[Gaudapada]] (7th century BC). − − === Vedanta before the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'' === − Not much remains of the teachings of Vedanta from this period. − − Pre-Shankara doctrines and sayings can be traced in the works of the later schools, which does give some insight into the development of early Vedanta philosophy. − − [[Badarayana]] was not the first person to systematise the teachings of the Upanishads. He refers to seven Vedantic teachers before him: − ===Vedanta between the ''[[Brahma Sutras]]'' and [[Adi Shankara]]=== − The vagueness of the [[Upanishads|Upanishadic]] teaching is particularly in reference to the relation of [[Brahman]] to the individual soul ([[Jivatva|Jiva]]) on the one hand, and to the physical universe on the other. Statements about their identity in the principal [[Upanishads]] are many and prominent and those distinguishing the two expressly are not altogether wanting. The first problem to solve for any one attempting to systematize the teaching of the Upanishads is accordingly to harmonize these two sets of statements. The most obvious way of doing so is to attach equal value to both classes of statements and theorize that the soul and the world are both identical with and different from [[Brahman]]. That was the view held by '''Bhartriprapancha''', who flourished before [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]], and commented on the [[Brahma Sutras|Vedanta Sutra]] and the [[Upanishads]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title=The Essentials of Indian Philosophy|last=Hiriyanna|first=M.|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2008|isbn=978-81-208-1330-4|location=Delhi|pages=152, 23|via=}}</ref> − − '''Bhartriprapancha''' maintained that the self and the physical universe, though finite and imperfect, are real and the two are not altogether different from the Brahman. Bhartriprapancha was criticised by [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]] in his treatises. Scholars see Bhartriprapancha as one of the earlier philosophers in the line of philosophers who teach the tenet of [[Bhedabheda]]..<ref name=":3" /> − − There was a long line of teachers of Vedanta before Shanka, the last among them being [[Mandan Mishra]], who regarded [[Mīmāṃsā|Mimamsa]] and Vedanta as forming a single system and advocated the combination of action and knowledge known as ''Karma-Jnana-samuchchaya-vada''. According to them, the [[Sutra|sutras]], beginning with the first [[sutra]] of [[Jaimini]] and ending with the last [[sutra]] of [[Badarayana|Badarayan]] [[Vyasa]], form one compact [[shastra]]<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title=A Critical Summary of Indian Philosphy|last=Sharma|first=Chandradhar|publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.|year=2009|isbn=978-81-208-0365-7|location=Delhi|pages=211|via=}}</ref>. The strict compartmentalization of Vedanta as different from the other orthodox Schools was the contribution of [[Adi Shankara|Shankara]]. − − In his commentaries, Shankara mentions 99 different predecessors of his Sampradaya.{{sfn|Roodurmum|2002}} In the beginning of his commentary on the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad Shankara salutes the teachers of the Brahmavidya Sampradaya.<ref group="web">[http://www.advaita-vedanta.org/avhp/pre-sankara.html advaita-deanta.org, ''Advaita Vedanta before Sankaracarya'']</ref> The names of various important early Vedanta thinkers have been listed in the ''Siddhitraya'' by Yamunācārya (c. 1050), the ''Vedārthasamgraha'' by Rāmānuja (c. 1050–1157), and the ''Yatīndramatadīpikā'' by Śrīnivāsa-dāsa.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} Combined together,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}} at least fourteen thinkers are known to have existed between the composition of the Brahman Sutras and Shankara's lifetime.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}{{refn|group=note|Bhartŗhari (c. 450–500), Upavarsa (c. 450–500), Bodhāyana (c. 500), Tanka (Brahmānandin) (c. 500–550), Dravida (c. 550), Bhartŗprapañca (c. 550), Śabarasvāmin (c. 550), Bhartŗmitra (c. 550–600), Śrivatsānka (c. 600), Sundarapāndya (c. 600), Brahmadatta (c. 600–700), Gaudapada (c. 640–690), Govinda (c. 670–720), Mandanamiśra (c. 670–750).{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=3}}}} − − ===Gaudapada and Shankara=== − {{Main|Advaita Vedanta}} − − Gaudapada wrote or compiled{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}} the {{IAST|Māṇḍukya Kārikā}}, also known as the {{IAST|Gauḍapāda Kārikā}} and as the {{IAST|Āgama Śāstra}}.{{refn|group=note|Nakamura notes that there are contradictions in doctrine between the four chapters.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=308}}}} Gaudapda took over the Buddhist doctrines that [[Yogacara#Representation-only|ultimate reality is pure consciousness (''vijñapti-mātra'')]]{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} Gaudapada "wove [both doctrines] into a philosophy of the ''Mandukaya Upanisad'', which was further developed by Shankara".{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177-178}} − − Adi Shankara (788–820), elaborated on Gaudapada's work, and is considered to be the founder of Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Raju|1992|p=177}} It was Shankara who succeeded in reading Gaudapada's ''mayavada''{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}{{refn|group=note|name=mayavada|The term "mayavada" is still being used, in a critical way, by the Hare Krshnas. See <ref group=web>[http://gaudiyatouchstone.net/mayavada-and-buddhism-%E2%80%93-are-they-one-and-same Swami B.V. Giri, Gaudya Touchstone, ''Mayavada and Buddhism – Are They One and the Same?'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://www.harekrishnatemple.com/chapter21.html harekrishnatemple.com, ''Mayavada Philosophy'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://www.harekrsna.com/philosophy/gss/sadhu/sampradayas/mayavada/mayavada.htm harekrsna.com, ''The Mayavada School'']</ref> <ref group=web>[http://gosai.com/writings/the-self-defeating-philosophy-of-mayavada Gaura Gopala Dasa, ''The Self-Defeating Philosophy of Mayavada'']</ref>}} into Badarayana's ''Brahma Sutras'', "and give it a ''locus classicus''",{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}} against the realistic strain of the ''Brahma Sutras''.{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}{{refn|group=note|Nicholson: "The ''Brahmasutras'' themselves espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins."{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}{{refn|group=note|B.N.K. Sharma: "[H]ow difficult he himself found the task of making the Sutras yield a Monism of his conception, is proved by the artificiality and ''parenthetical irrelevance of his comments'' in many places, where he seeks to go against the spirit and letter of the Sutras and their natural drift of arguments and dialectic [...] he was fighting with all his might and ingenuity against a long line of realistic commentaries."{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}}}} His interpretation, including works ascribed to him, has become the normative interpretation of Advaita Vedanta.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004}}{{sfn|Sharma|2000|p=64}} − − Although Shankara is often considered to be the founder of the Advaita Vedanta school, according to Nakamura, comparison of the known teachings of these early Vedantins and Shankara's thought shows that most of the characteristics of Shankara's thought "were advocated by someone before Śankara".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} Shankara "was the person who synthesized the ''Advaita-vāda'' which had previously existed before him".{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=678}} In this synthesis, he was the rejuvenator and defender of ancient learning.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} He was an unequalled commentator,{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} due to whose efforts and contributions the Advaita Vedanta assumed a dominant position within Indian philosophy.{{sfn|Nakamura|2004|p=679}} − − ===Bhakti=== − {{Main|Bhakti|Bhakti movement}} − − Bhedabheda Vedanta schools played an important role in the rise of ''bhakti'', such as [[Suddhadvaita]], founded by [[Vallabha]]<ref name="Washington" /> (1479–1531 CE), [[Achintya Bheda Abheda]], founded by [[Chaitanya Mahaprabhu]] (1486–1534){{sfn|Sivananda|1993|p=248}} and [[Vishishtadvaita]] founded by [[Ramanuja|Shri Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE). − − ===Integration of various schools=== − According to Nicholson, already between the 12th and the 16th century, − {{quote|... certain thinkers began to treat as a single whole the diverse philosophical teachings of the Upanishads, epics, Puranas, and the schools known retrospectively as the "six systems" (''saddarsana'') of mainstream Hindu philosophy.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}}{{refn|group=note|The tendency of "a blurring of philosophical distinctions" has also been noted by Burley.{{sfn|Burley|2007|p=34}} Lorenzen locates the origins of a distinct Hindu identity in the interaction between Muslims and Hindus,{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=24-33}} and a process of "mutual self-definition with a contrasting Muslim other",{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=27}} which started well before 1800.{{sfn|Lorenzen|2006|p=26-27}}}}}} − − Both the Indian and the European thinkers who developed the term "Hinduism" in the 19th century were influenced by these philosophers{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=2}} especially [[Vijnanabhiksu]], a [[Bhedabheda]] Vedantin.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} [[Neo-Vedanta]] too was inspired by these thinkers.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010}} − − ==Vedanta philosophy== Line 110:
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Editing content
- as associated with the mental state and perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.
- as associated with the mental state and perception of any external object (that is present and capable of being perceived) takes place when these three occupy the same space, by the mental state issuing through the organ and spreading over the object so as to assume the same form - like the water of a tank reaching a field through a channel and taking the shape of the field.
===Basic questions===
===Basic questions===
Sivananda gives the following explanation:
Sivananda gives the following explanation:
{{quote|Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.{{sfn|Sivananda|p=217}}}}
{{quote|Madhva said: "Man is the servant of God," and established his Dvaita philosophy. Ramanuja said: "Man is a ray or spark of God," and established his Visishtadvaita philosophy. Sankara said: "Man is identical with Brahman or the Eternal Soul," and established his Kevala Advaita philosophy.}}
All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',<ref group=web name="IEPBheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta,{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}<ref group=web name="IEPBheda" /> as well as Samkhya,<ref group=web name="IEPBheda" /> support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins".{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman:
All schools of Vedanta subscribe to the theory of ''Satkāryavāda'',<ref group=web name="IEPBheda">[http://www.iep.utm.edu/bhed-ved/#H3 Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, ''Bhedābheda Vedānta'']</ref> which means that the effect is pre-existent in the cause. But there are two different views on the status of the "effect", that is, the world. Most schools of Vedanta, as well as Samkhya, support ''[[Parinama-vada (Hindu thought)|Parinamavada]]'', the idea that the world is a real transformation (''parinama'') of Brahman. According to Nicholson, "the ''Brahma Sutras'' also espouse the realist Parinamavada position, which appears to have been the view most common among early Vedantins".{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}} In contrast to Badarayana, Adi Shankara and Advaita Vedantists hold a different view, ''[[Vivartavada]]'', which says that the effect, the world, is merely an unreal (''vivarta'') transformation of its cause, Brahman:
{{quote|[A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are essentially unreal, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}
{{quote|[A]lthough Brahman seems to undergo a transformation, in fact no real change takes place. The myriad of beings are essentially unreal, as the only real being is Brahman, that ultimate reality which is unborn, unchanging, and entirely without parts.{{sfn|Nicholson|2010|p=27}}}}
===Common features===
===Common features===
Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:{{sfn|Sheridan|1985|p=136}}
Even though there are many sub-schools of vedantic philosophy, all these schools share some common features, that can be called the vedantic core:
* Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]''—The [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.
* Brahman is the supreme cause of the entire universe and is all pervading and eternal, as found in the ''[[Prasthanatrayi]]''—The [[Upanishads]], the [[Brahma Sutras]] and the ''[[Bhagavad Gita]]''.
* Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion. Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be renounced.
* Actions are subordinate to knowledge or devotion. Actions are useful only for preparing the mind for knowledge or devotion; and once this is achieved, selfish actions and their rewards must be renounced.