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== Introduction ==

== Introduction ==

Bharatiya naari (women), as we go back into antiquity, are found to have performed very well in many spheres of life. Ample evidence points to the view that women were regarded as eligible for the privilege of studying Vedas and Vedanta along with taking part in performing yajnas up until the recent millenia.<ref name=":0">Altekar, A. S. (1944) ''Education in Ancient India.'' Benares : Nand Kishore and Bros.,</ref> Bharatiya parampara offered the freedom to women to lead their lives according to their choice. They could either choose study of Vedas or get married to become grhasthas. Evidence of intellectual excellence of Bharatiya nari (women) is proved by the lofty philosophical ideas and discussions given by female mantra-drashtas of Rigvedic suktas. Gosha, Romasa, Vishvavara, and Gargi are the names of some of the highly educated rshikas mentioned in Rigveda. After completing their education under a Guru they could perform religious rites, participate in philosophical debates, engage in tapas etc.  

Bharatiya naari (women), as we go back into antiquity, are found to have performed very well in many spheres of life. Ample evidence points to the view that women were regarded as eligible for the privilege of studying Vedas and Vedanta along with taking part in performing yajnas up until the recent millenia.<ref name=":0">Altekar, A. S. (1944) ''Education in Ancient India.'' Benares : Nand Kishore and Bros.,</ref> Bharatiya parampara offered the freedom to women to lead their lives according to their choice. They could either choose study of Vedas or get married to become grhasthas. Evidence of intellectual excellence of Bharatiya nari (women) is proved by the lofty philosophical ideas and discussions given by female mantra-drashtas of Rigvedic suktas. Gosha, Romasa, Vishvavara, and Gargi are the names of some of the highly educated rshikas mentioned in the Vedas. After completing their education under a Guru they could perform religious rites, participate in philosophical debates, and engage in tapas etc.  

Additionally, ladies were also competent to arrange their own marriages, Svayamvara (choosing a husband) was allowed. In Rigvedic times no girl was married before she had reached the womanhood. She must be fully developed physically in her father’s house (Pitrpadam Vyaktaa) before her marriage could be thought of. Suryaa, the daughter of Surya, was given away in marriage only after she became youthful and yearned for a husband.<ref name=":5">Pandey, Raj Bali. (1949) ''Hindu Samskaras, A Socio-religious study of the Hindu Sacraments.'' Banaras: Vikrama Publications. (Pages 316-317)</ref><blockquote>अ॒न्यामि॑च्छ पितृ॒षदं॒ व्य॑क्तां॒ स ते॑ भा॒गो ज॒नुषा॒ तस्य॑ विद्धि ॥२१॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.85.21)</blockquote>The spells and charms mentioned in the Rigveda and Atharvaveda indicate that the bride and groom were both grown-up before marriage. There were no child marriages in the Vedic period.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" />

Additionally, ladies were also competent to arrange their own marriages, Svayamvara (choosing a husband) was allowed. In Rigvedic times no girl was married before she had reached the womanhood. She must be fully developed physically in her father’s house (Pitrpadam Vyaktaa) before her marriage could be thought of. Suryaa, the daughter of Surya, was given away in marriage only after she became youthful and yearned for a husband.<ref name=":5">Pandey, Raj Bali. (1949) ''Hindu Samskaras, A Socio-religious study of the Hindu Sacraments.'' Banaras: Vikrama Publications. (Pages 316-317)</ref><blockquote>अ॒न्यामि॑च्छ पितृ॒षदं॒ व्य॑क्तां॒ स ते॑ भा॒गो ज॒नुषा॒ तस्य॑ विद्धि ॥२१॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.85.21)</blockquote>The spells and charms mentioned in the Rigveda and Atharvaveda indicate that the bride and groom were both grown-up before marriage. There were no child marriages in the Vedic period.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" />

== Paths of Education And Marriage ==

== Paths of Education And Marriage ==

Harita [xxi, 23] says ; " Women are of two classes : (i) Brahmavadini, (2) Sadyovadhu. The former is eligible for Upanayana, Agnyadhana, Veda-Study, and practice of begging within the household. The Sadyovadhu had to perform Upanayana in some form before she is married.” Yama also says : “ In times of yore, girls were eligible for (1) Maunjibandhana (i.e. Upanayana), (2) study of Veda, and (3) Savitri-vachana (use of Savitri Mantra).”   

Harita [xxi, 23] says ; "Women are of two classes : (i) '''Brahmavadini''', (2) '''Sadyovadhu'''. The former is eligible for Upanayana, Agnyadhana, Veda-Study, and practice of begging within the household. The Sadyovadhu had to perform Upanayana in some form before she is married.”    

While brahmavadinis chose the path of Vedic studies, women who opted out of higher education for married life were called 'sadyovadhus'. The education of the Sadyovadhus comprised the study of important veda mantras necessary for the regular prayers and yajnas conducted by a grhastha. Moreover, ladies from the Kshatriya caste received training in martial arts courses and wielding arms. Co-education existed in the Vedic period and both the male and female students got equal attention from the teacher.   

While brahmavadinis chose the path of Vedic studies, women who opted out of higher education for married life were called 'sadyovadhus'. The education of the Sadyovadhus comprised the study of important veda mantras necessary for the regular prayers and yajnas conducted by a grhastha. Moreover, ladies from the Kshatriya caste received training in martial arts courses and wielding arms. Co-education existed in the Vedic period and both the male and female students got equal attention from the teacher.   

Some Brahmavadinis used to marry after completing their education while some would not marry at all. There are many references in the Vedas to unmarried girls who grew old in the house of their fathers (Rigveda. 1.117.7 and 2.17.7).<ref name=":5" />

Some Brahmavadinis used to marry after completing their education while some would not marry at all. There are many references in the Vedas to unmarried girls who grew old in the house of their fathers (Rigveda. 1.117.7 and 2.17.7).<ref name=":5" />

== Women and Yajnas ==

== Women and Yajnas ==

Just as in present day, after marriage, the girl became a 'grihini' (wife) and was considered 'ardhangini' or one half of her husband's being. Both of them constituted the 'griha' or home, and she was considered its 'samrajni' (queen or mistress) and had an equal share in the performance of religious activities.

Just as in present day, after marriage, the girl became a 'grihini' (wife) and was considered 'ardhangini' or one half of her husband's being. Both of them constituted the 'griha' or home, and she was considered its 'samrajni' (queen or mistress) and had an equal share in the performance of religious activities.

== Upanayana of Girls ==

== Upanayana of Girls ==

The scheme of education framed by the ancient Bharatiyas to initiate the young children for preparing them for full citizenship of the community marked a great advance over the primitive idea of initiation seen in a few other cultures. Without the Upanayana none could call himself a twice-born. The transformation of personality was marked with this Samskara. No one can recite veda-mantras or perform yajnas without having undergone the initiation called as [[Upanayana (उपनयनम्)|Upanayana]]. It is thus natural that in the early ages Upanayana of girls was as common as that of the boys. Women in Vedic age who pursued vedic studies, could undergo the sacred thread ceremony or 'Upanayana' (a samskara required to pursue Vedic studies), in contrast to the present times when it is only meant for males.   

The scheme of education framed by the ancient Bharatiyas to initiate the young children for preparing them for full citizenship of the community marked a great advance over the primitive idea of initiation seen in a few other cultures. Without the Upanayana none could call himself a twice-born. The transformation of personality was marked with this Samskara. No one can recite veda-mantras or perform yajnas without having undergone the initiation called as [[Upanayana (उपनयनम्)|Upanayana]]. It is thus natural that in the early ages Upanayana of girls was as common as that of the boys. Women in Vedic age who pursued vedic studies, could undergo the sacred thread ceremony or 'Upanayana' (a samskara required to pursue Vedic studies), in contrast to the present times when it is only meant for males.   

Atharvaveda states that there are no hindrances for girls to perform the rite of initiation. It expressly refers to maidens undergoing the Brahmacharya vrata for winning a young husband.  <blockquote>ब्रह्मचर्येण कन्या युवानं विन्दते पतिम् । (Atha. Veda. 11.7.18)<ref>Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Kanda 11 Sukta 7])</ref></blockquote>Manu also includes Upanayana among the samskaras obligatory for girls (2.66). Yama admits the prevalence of Upanayana for girls in earlier ages.<ref name=":0" />  

Atharvaveda states that there are no hindrances for girls to perform the rite of initiation. It expressly refers to maidens undergoing the Brahmacharya vrata for winning a young husband.  <blockquote>ब्रह्मचर्येण कन्या युवानं विन्दते पतिम् । (Atha. Veda. 11.7.18)<ref>Atharvaveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%82_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%A6%E0%A5%AD Kanda 11 Sukta 7])</ref></blockquote>Manu also includes Upanayana among the samskaras obligatory for girls (2.66). Yama admits the prevalence of Upanayana for girls in earlier ages. The famous and much discussed reference from Yama Smrti also says<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>पुराकल्पे तु नारीणां मौञ्जीबन्धनमिष्यते। अध्यापनं च वेदानां सावित्रीवाचनं तथा॥    </blockquote>In times of yore, girls were eligible for (1) Maunjibandhana (i.e. Upanayana), (2) study of Veda, and (3) Savitri-vachana (use of Savitri Mantra).  

Rarely we see some Rigveda followers still practice the Upanayana samskara and wearing of yajnopaveeta for female children even in the present day.  

 

Brahmavādinīs underwent the sacrament of upanayana, kept the Vedic fires, studied the Vedas under their own father and lived by begging the food, also under the parental roof. They had samāvartana (valedictory rite at the end of the period of Vedic studies) also. They could then marry and settle down in life. The name ‘brahmavādinī’ seems to have been given due to the fact that the girl could recite (vad = to speak or recite) the Vedas (Brahma = Veda).

‘Sadyovadhus’ were those who became vadhus or brides straight-away, (sadyas = at once) on the attainment of puberty, without undergoing the training in the Vedic studies. In their case, the upanayana ceremony was performed just before marriage, at the age of 16 or 17. The education of sadyovadhus comprised the study of important veda mantras and stotras necessary for the usual prayers and yajnas after marriage. Music and dance were also taught to them them; partiality of women to these arts is often referred to in the vedic literature.<ref name=":0" />

The wife was a regular participator in the yajnas of the husband as mentioned in the Rigveda mantras (1.122.2; 1.131.3; 3.53.4-6; 5.43.15; 8.31.5; 10.86.10; etc.). It is evident that some knowledge of Vedic rituals was essential to participate in the yajnas. The Srauta or Grhya Sutras mention Vedic Mantras being uttered by the wife at ceremonies along with her husband [e.g. Asvalayana Srautasutras i, ii; Gobhila Grhyasutras, i, 3 ; ii, 3 ; Apastamba xii, 3, 12 ; Paraskara Sutras., ix, 2, i]. Gobhila [Grhyasutras i, 3] states that the wife should be educated to be able to take part in yajnas (''nahi khalu anadhitya saknoti patni hotumiti''). Hemadri states that “ Kumaris, unmarried girls, should be taught Vidya and Dharmaniti. An educated Kumari brings good to the families of both her father and husband. So she should be married to a learned husband [manlshi), as she is a vidushi.”<ref>Mookerji. Radha Kumud, (1947) Ancient Indian Education (Brahminical and Buddhist) London: MacMillan And Co., Ltd. (Page 51 and 208, 209)</ref>  

These learned women were interested in discussing about ब्रह्मन् or Parabrahman, the Absolute, and perform adhyatmik practices to realize the same. Girls who devoted themselves to education after Upanayana thus had to perform the regulations laid down for a male Upaneeta with some modifications. They were never looked adversely by the society and some parents performed penance to obtain such progeny. The Brhdaranyaka Upanishad even prescribes an offering of cooked sesame and rice in yajna for obtaining a daughter who becomes a Brahmavadini and stay with them for entire life. <blockquote>अथ य इच्छेद् दुहिता मे पण्डिता जायेत सर्वमायुरियादिति तिलौदनं पाचयित्वा सर्पिष्मन्तमश्नीयाताम् । ईश्वरौ जनयितवै ॥ बृह. ६,४.१७ ॥ (Brhd. Upan. 6.4.17) </blockquote>Rarely we see some Rigveda followers still practice the Upanayana samskara and wearing of yajnopaveeta for female children even in the present day.

== ब्रह्मवादिनी  ॥ Brahmavadini ==

== ब्रह्मवादिनी  ॥ Brahmavadini ==

The attainments of lady scholars, who remained unmarried for a longer time, were naturally wider and more varied. In the Vedic age, they used to acquire thorough mastery in the Vedic literature and even compose poems, some of which have been honoured by their inclusion in the Vedas. As yajnas became complex, a new branch of study, called Mimansa, came to be developed in their connection. We find lady scholars taking keen interest in it. Kashakritsnin had composed a work on Mimansa called Kashakritsni after him; lady students who used to specialise in it, were known as Kashakritsna. If lady specialists in a technical science like Mimamsa were so numerous as to necessitate the coining of a new special term to denote them, it can be concluded that the number of women who used to receive general literacy and cultural education must have been fairly large. In the age of the Upanishads, we have lady scholars with interest in the study of philosophy. Maitreyi, the wife of Yajnavalkya and Gargi Vachaknavi are noted examples. The keen reasoning and subtle cross-examination of Yajnavalkya by Gargi shows that she was a dialectician and philosopher of a high order. Some lady scholars of the age like Sulabha, Vadava, Pratitheyi, Maitreyi, and Gargi seem to have made real contribution to the advancement of knowledge, for they enjoy the rare privilege of being included among the galaxy of distinguished scholars, to whom a daily tribute of gratitude was to be given by a grateful posterity at the time of the daily prayer (Brahmayajna).<blockquote>गर्गी वाचक्नवी वडवा प्रातिथेयी सुलभा मैत्रेयी....शौनकमाश्वलायनं ये चान्य आचार्यास्ते सर्वे तृप्यन्त्विति ४ (Asva. Grhy. Sutr. 3.4.4 and Shan. Grhy. Sutr. 6.10.3)</blockquote>Women-seers were called Rishikas and Brahmavadinis. The Rigveda knows of the following rshikas, viz.<ref name=":8">Mookerji. Radha Kumud, (1947) Ancient Indian Education (Brahminical and Buddhist) London: MacMillan And Co., Ltd. (Page 51)</ref>

The attainments of lady scholars, who remained unmarried for a longer time, were naturally wider and more varied. In the Vedic age, they used to acquire thorough mastery in the Vedic literature and even compose poems, some of which have been honoured by their inclusion in the Vedas. As yajnas became complex, a new branch of study, called Mimamsa, came to be developed in their connection. We find lady scholars taking keen interest in it. Kashakritsnin had composed a work on Mimansa called Kashakritsni (काशकृत्स्नि) after him; lady students who used to specialise in it, were known as Kashakritsna (काशकृत्स्ना). If lady specialists in a technical science like Mimamsa were so numerous as to necessitate the coining of a new special term to denote them, it can be concluded that the number of women who used to receive general literacy and cultural education must have been fairly large. In the age of the Upanishads, we have lady scholars with interest in the study of philosophy. Maitreyi, the wife of Yajnavalkya and Gargi Vachaknavi are noted examples. The keen reasoning and subtle cross-examination of Yajnavalkya by Gargi shows that she was a dialectician and philosopher of a high order. Some lady scholars of the age like Sulabha, Vadava, Pratitheyi, Maitreyi, and Gargi seem to have made real contribution to the advancement of knowledge, for they enjoy the rare privilege of being included among the galaxy of distinguished scholars, to whom a daily tribute of gratitude was to be given by a grateful posterity at the time of the daily prayer (Brahmayajna).<ref name=":0" /><blockquote>गर्गी वाचक्नवी वडवा प्रातिथेयी सुलभा मैत्रेयी....शौनकमाश्वलायनं ये चान्य आचार्यास्ते सर्वे तृप्यन्त्विति ४ (Asva. Grhy. Sutr. 3.4.4 and Shan. Grhy. Sutr. 6.10.3)</blockquote>

 

 

Women-seers were called Rishikas and Brahmavadinis. The Rigveda knows of the following rshikas, viz.<ref name=":8">Mookerji. Radha Kumud, (1947) Ancient Indian Education (Brahminical and Buddhist) London: MacMillan And Co., Ltd. (Page 51)</ref>

# Romasa [1.126.7]

# Romasa [1.126.7]

श्रीर्लाक्षा सार्पराज्ञी वाक्श्रद्धा मेधा च दक्षिणा । रात्री सूर्या च सावित्री ब्रह्मवादिन्य ईरिता: ॥ (बृहद्देवता २/८४, ८५, ८६)</blockquote>Meaning: Ghosha, Godha, Vishvavara, Apaala, Upanishad, Nishad, Brahmajaya (Juhu), Agasthya's sister, Aditi, Indrani, Indra's mother, Sarama, Romasha, Urvashi, Lopamudra, Nadis (Rivers), Yami, Shasvati, Shri, Laksha, Sarparajni, Vak, Shraddha, Medha, Dakshina, Ratri, and Suryaa are all Brahmavadinis.

श्रीर्लाक्षा सार्पराज्ञी वाक्श्रद्धा मेधा च दक्षिणा । रात्री सूर्या च सावित्री ब्रह्मवादिन्य ईरिता: ॥ (बृहद्देवता २/८४, ८५, ८६)</blockquote>Meaning: Ghosha, Godha, Vishvavara, Apaala, Upanishad, Nishad, Brahmajaya (Juhu), Agasthya's sister, Aditi, Indrani, Indra's mother, Sarama, Romasha, Urvashi, Lopamudra, Nadis (Rivers), Yami, Shasvati, Shri, Laksha, Sarparajni, Vak, Shraddha, Medha, Dakshina, Ratri, and Suryaa are all Brahmavadinis.

The Brahmavadinis were the products of the educational discipline of brahmacharya for which women also were eligible. Rigveda (5.7.9) refers to young maidens completing their education as brahmacharinis and then gaining husbands in whom they are merged like rivers in oceans. Rigveda 3.55.16 mentions unmarried learned and young daughters who should be married to learned bridegrooms. Yajurveda [8.1] similarly states that a daughter, who has completed her brahmacharya, should be married to one who is learned like her. The Atharvaveda [9.6] also refers to maidens qualifydng by their brahmacharya, the disciplined life of studentship, for married life in the second ashrama (''brahmacharyena kanya yuvanam vindate patim'').<ref name=":8" />

The Brahmavadinis were the products of the educational discipline of brahmacharya for which women also were eligible. Rigveda (5.7.9) refers to young maidens completing their education as brahmacharinis and then gaining husbands in whom they are merged like rivers in oceans. Rigveda 3.55.16 mentions unmarried learned and young daughters who should be married to learned bridegrooms. Yajurveda [8.1] similarly states that a daughter, who has completed her brahmacharya, should be married to one who is learned like her. The Atharvaveda [9.6] also refers to maidens qualifying by their brahmacharya, the disciplined life of studentship, for married life in the second ashrama (''brahmacharyena kanya yuvanam vindate patim'').<ref name=":8" />

 

 

At least twenty different women are credited as the mantra drashtas of Rigveda as given in the above list. For example आङ्गिरसी शश्वती ऋषिका । Angirasi Shasvati rishika was associated with Rk number 34 of Mandala 8 Sukta 1<ref>Rig Veda ([http://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/mandal-08/ Mandala 8 Sukta 1])</ref>. A few of the noted include, Vishvavara, Maitreyi, Nivavari, Ghosha, Romasa, Apala.

At least twenty different women are credited as the mantra drashtas of Rigveda as given in the above list. For example आङ्गिरसी शश्वती ऋषिका । Angirasi Shasvati rishika was associated with Rk number 34 of Mandala 8 Sukta 1<ref>Rig Veda ([http://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/mandal-08/ Mandala 8 Sukta 1])</ref>.

=== र्मैत्रेयी ॥ Maitreyi ===

=== र्मैत्रेयी ॥ Maitreyi ===

The Brhadaranyaka Upaniṣad (4.5.1) calls Maitreyi, wife of Yajnavalkya maharshi, as a brahmavadini. Yajnavalkya had two wives Maitreyi and Katyayani.  <blockquote>अथ ह याज्ञवल्क्यस्य द्वे भार्ये बभूवतुर्मैत्रेयी च कात्यायनी च । तयोर्ह मैत्रेयी ब्रह्मवादिनी बभूव । (Brhd. Upan. 4.5.1)<ref>Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_4p Adhyaya 4])</ref></blockquote>

The Brhadaranyaka Upaniṣad (4.5.1) calls Maitreyi, wife of Yajnavalkya maharshi, as a brahmavadini. Yajnavalkya had two wives Maitreyi and Katyayani.  <blockquote>अथ ह याज्ञवल्क्यस्य द्वे भार्ये बभूवतुर्मैत्रेयी च कात्यायनी च । तयोर्ह मैत्रेयी ब्रह्मवादिनी बभूव । (Brhd. Upan. 4.5.1)<ref>Brhadaranyaka Upanishad ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D_4p Adhyaya 4])</ref></blockquote>

When he intended to adopt the fourth ashrama, he wanted to make a settlement of worldly things between Maitreyi and Katyayani. Maitreyi, disregarding the short-lived transient material wealth, asked him to endow them with the long lasting Knowledge that gives them Ultimate Happiness or Sasvata Ananda. She then learns and engages in Vedanta discussions with her husband Yājñavalkya (See [[Yajnavalkya Maitreyi samvada (याज्ञवल्क्यमैत्रेय्योः संवादः)|Yajnavalkya Maitreyi Samvada]]).  

When he intended to adopt the fourth ashrama, he wanted to make a settlement of worldly things between Maitreyi and Katyayani. Maitreyi, disregarding the short-lived transient material wealth, asked him to endow them with the long lasting Knowledge that gives them ultimate happiness or Sasvata Ananda. She then learns and engages in Vedanta discussions with her husband Yājñavalkya (See [[Yajnavalkya Maitreyi samvada (याज्ञवल्क्यमैत्रेय्योः संवादः)|Yajnavalkya Maitreyi Samvada]]).  

=== विश्ववारा ॥ Vishvavara ===

=== विश्ववारा ॥ Vishvavara ===