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Several ancient literary references to fortresses are available which are both interesting and valuable. '''Rigveda''' mentions about tribes living in fortifications known by पूर् । Pur, more like the suffix of city names used till date. Brahmana literature also features many references to citadels used by the rulers. In '''Kaushitaki Brahmana''', Upaasadas are described as the citadels of Asuras. Interesting anecdote about the Tripurasuras, the three asura brothers who built cities of gold, silver and iron in different strata of earth and who were killed by Shiva, may be recollected in the puranas. It may be safely said that the use of forts was well known to the people of vedic times.<ref name=":2">Dikshitar, Ramachandra. V. R. (1944) ''War in Ancient India.'' London: MacMillian and Co., Ltd. (Page 247)</ref>

Several ancient literary references to fortresses are available which are both interesting and valuable. '''Rigveda''' mentions about tribes living in fortifications known by पूर् । Pur, more like the suffix of city names used till date. Brahmana literature also features many references to citadels used by the rulers. In '''Kaushitaki Brahmana''', Upaasadas are described as the citadels of Asuras. Interesting anecdote about the Tripurasuras, the three asura brothers who built cities of gold, silver and iron in different strata of earth and who were killed by Shiva, may be recollected in the puranas. It may be safely said that the use of forts was well known to the people of vedic times.<ref name=":2">Dikshitar, Ramachandra. V. R. (1944) ''War in Ancient India.'' London: MacMillian and Co., Ltd. (Page 247)</ref>

Agnipurana (Agni. Pura. 222)<ref>Agni Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 222])</ref> and '''Manusmrti''' among Dharmashastras details the six kinds of forts and their usage in general. Both texts agree that all rulers should with willful effort include Giridurga (hill fortress) for it is by many qualities superior (in offering protection).<ref name=":2" /> <blockquote>सर्वेण तु प्रयत्नेन गिरिदुर्गं समाश्रयेत् । एषां हि बाहुगुण्येन गिरिदुर्गं विशिष्यते । । ७.७१ । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.71)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>In the '''Ramayana''', we find extensive description of fort cities of Ayodhya of Ikshvaku dynasty and the Lankapuri of Ravanasura. Apart from description of the common features of a fort such as huge insurmountable walls, moats, openings covered with invisible obstructions, huge gates sealed with massive beams and bolts, gateways and broad passages, residential quarters, Hanuman refers to Attalakas which were places for locating both movable and immovable defense weapons and chaitya for the worship of the guardian deity of the country.  

Agnipurana (Agni. Pura. 222)<ref>Agni Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 222])</ref> and '''Manusmrti''' among Dharmashastras details the six kinds of forts and their usage in general. Both texts agree that all rulers should with willful effort include Giridurga (hill fortress) for it is by many qualities superior (in offering protection).<ref name=":2" /> <blockquote>सर्वेण तु प्रयत्नेन गिरिदुर्गं समाश्रयेत् । एषां हि बाहुगुण्येन गिरिदुर्गं विशिष्यते । । ७.७१ । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.71)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>In the '''Ramayana''', we find extensive description of fort cities of Ayodhya of Ikshvaku dynasty and the Lankapuri of Ravanasura. Apart from description of the common features of a fort such as huge insurmountable walls, moats, openings covered with invisible obstructions, huge gates sealed with massive beams and bolts, gateways and broad passages, residential quarters, Hanuman refers to Attalakas which were places for locating both movable and immovable defense weapons and chaitya for the worship of the guardian deity of the country.

'''Mahabharata''' Shantiparva (राजधर्मानुशासनपर्व) also provides ample information about forts and warfare. According to Bhishma, a fort surrounded by a huge wall and a ditch full of water, furnished with only one entrance is the best.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>आवासस्तोयवान्दुर्ग एकमार्गः प्रशस्यते॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.100.15)</blockquote>In medieval times the conception of forts was not very different from that in ancient India. '''Kautilya's Arthashastra''' and '''Manasarasilpashastra''' throw light on the construction of forts and warfare of those times. Manasara defines the Padmaka type of a fortress city having eight, twelve or sixteen gates and the whole surrounded by a huge wall and a moat. Manasara is an important text that discusses the [[Nagara Vinyasa Tattvas (नगरविन्यासतत्त्वानि)|Nagaravinyasa tattvas]] or the principles used in town and village planning.  

'''Mahabharata''' Shantiparva (राजधर्मानुशासनपर्व) also provides ample information about forts and warfare. According to Bhishma, a fort surrounded by a huge wall and a ditch full of water, furnished with only one entrance is the best.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>आवासस्तोयवान्दुर्ग एकमार्गः प्रशस्यते॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.100.15)</blockquote>In medieval times the conception of forts was not very different from that in ancient India. '''Kautilya's Arthashastra''' and '''Manasarasilpashastra''' throw light on the construction of forts and warfare of those times. Manasara defines the Padmaka type of a fortress city having eight, twelve or sixteen gates and the whole surrounded by a huge wall and a moat. Manasara is an important text that discusses the [[Nagara Vinyasa Tattvas (नगरविन्यासतत्त्वानि)|Nagaravinyasa tattvas]] or the principles used in town and village planning. A more recent valuable work Viramitrodaya Lakshana Prakasa<ref>Pt. Vishnu Prasad. (1916) ''Viramitrodaya, Lakshana Prakasa by Mm. Pandita Mitra Mishra. Volume 20.'' Benares: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office. (Pages 238-242)</ref>, describes the lakshanas of fort, the kinds of forts and their uses as given in various texts. The description of the six kinds of forts as given by Ushanas (Sukracharya) in Sukrasmriti in Lakshana prakasa with utmost detail.  

== दुर्गभेदाः ॥ Kinds of Forts ==

== दुर्गभेदाः ॥ Kinds of Forts ==

# अब्दुर्गं ॥ Abdurga: A fort surrounded by water on all sides  

# अब्दुर्गं ॥ Abdurga: A fort surrounded by water on all sides  

# वनदुर्गं ॥ Vanadurga: A fort in the midst of thick forest area

# वनदुर्गं ॥ Vanadurga: A fort in the midst of thick forest area

According to '''Shukraniti''', there are different types of forts, based on the physical location of the site and on the basis of the troops or allies involved. Among these, Parikha (पारिखः) is a fortress is surrounded on all sides by ditches, Parigha (पारिघः) is the one that is protected by walls of bricks, stones and mud. Dhanva (धन्वदुर्गः) has no water around it; whereas Jala (जलदुर्गः) is the fort that is surrounded by abundant sheets of water. Giri (गिरिदुर्गः) fort is on a high-level and is supplied with plenty of water. Sahaya (सहाय​) is the fort that is created by valorous and friendly kinsfolk. <blockquote>परितस्तु महाखातं पारिखं दुर्गमेव तत्। इष्ककोपेलमृद्भित्तिप्राकारं पारिघं स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.2)</blockquote>It also brings out the order of preference of the various types of forts in the following shloka<blockquote>परिखादैरिणं श्रेष्ठं पारिघं तु ततो वनम्। ततो धन्वजलं तस्माद् गिरिदुर्गं ततः स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.6)</blockquote>

According to '''Shukraniti''', there are different types of forts, based on the physical location of the site and on the basis of the troops or allies involved. Among these, Parikha (पारिखः) is a fortress is surrounded on all sides by ditches, Parigha (पारिघः) is the one that is protected by walls of bricks, stones and mud. Dhanva (धन्वदुर्गः) has no water around it; whereas Jala (जलदुर्गः) is the fort that is surrounded by abundant sheets of water. Giri (गिरिदुर्गः) fort is on a high-level and is supplied with plenty of water. Sahaya (सहाय​) is the fort that is created by valorous and friendly kinsfolk. <blockquote>परितस्तु महाखातं पारिखं दुर्गमेव तत्। इष्ककोपेलमृद्भित्तिप्राकारं पारिघं स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.2)</blockquote>It also brings out the order of preference of the various types of forts in the following shloka<blockquote>परिखादैरिणं श्रेष्ठं पारिघं तु ततो वनम्। ततो धन्वजलं तस्माद् गिरिदुर्गं ततः स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.6)</blockquote>'''Samarangana Sutradhara''' by Raja Bhoja is another equally important work on architecture which mentions four kinds of forts; one surrounded by a chain of lofty hills difficult to scale is the Giridurga or mountain citadel. Full of thorns, shrubs and trees, interspersed with small areas of water on every side and with secret passages leading to and from it, is the muladurga or forest fort. Surrounded by deep waters on all four sides and presenting a beautiful appearance is the Jaladurga, followed by a fort in the desert areas. '''Sivattavaratnakara,''' another text, mentions nine kinds of fortresses; to the six described in Mahabharata, three more are added. This shows that as time went by, the types of fortresses increased in number. According to this text, the best are the mountain and water fortifications while Darudurga (forest forts) and Naradurga belong to the inferior kinds.<ref name=":2" />

== दुर्गनिर्माणम् ॥ Design of Forts ==

== दुर्गनिर्माणम् ॥ Design of Forts ==

=== Buildings within the fort ===

=== Buildings within the fort ===

The fort has about 12 gates with both a land and a water way and a secret passage. The roads vary in width depending on its purpose – royal roads are about 24 feet in width. The palace of the king and houses of the people of various varnas are constructed within the fort. Different people occupy the sites. In the centre of the city, apartments of Gods are situated. There are sufficient supplies of grains and merchandise as authorized (whose supply may last for years). There is a well for every 10 houses. The chiefs of the various divisions of the army, the boundary guards, repairers of the fort are appointed in plenty. Outsiders are never allowed to live inside the fort. They shall live only in country parts, else be compelled to pay taxes.

The fort has about 12 gates with both a land and a water way and a secret passage. The roads vary in width depending on its purpose – royal roads are about 24 feet in width. The palace of the king and houses of the people of various varnas are constructed within the fort. Different people occupy the sites. In the centre of the city, apartments of Gods are situated. There are sufficient supplies of grains and merchandise as authorized (whose supply may last for years). There is a well for every 10 houses. The chiefs of the various divisions of the army, the boundary guards, repairers of the fort are appointed in plenty. Outsiders are never allowed to live inside the fort. They shall live only in country parts, else be compelled to pay taxes.

== दुर्गलम्भहेतवः॥ Siege of fort ==

== दुर्गलम्भहेतवः॥ Siege of fort ==