Changes

A Fort (Samskrit: दुर्गः), in the present context, refers to the ancient walled and protected building structures, to house the armies and it was also the residence of ruling monarch and his family members. Many of them were tall, stone structures of wide expanse, located in strategic positions and fortified in many ways to protect its inmates. Forts played a major role in land fights to defend a kingdom. Sanskrit literature possesses evidences for existence of forts right from the Vedic period. These architectural marvels stand testimony to ancient military might and intelligence. During earlier days, rulers ensured that their capital was fortified either naturally by water ways, mountainous paths and dense forests or artificially by building rampart walls, digging moats and growing thorny plants.

A Fort (Samskrit: दुर्गः), in the present context, refers to the ancient walled and protected building structures, to house the armies and it was also the residence of ruling monarch and his family members. Many of them were tall, stone structures of wide expanse, located in strategic positions and fortified in many ways to protect its inmates. Forts played a major role in land fights to defend a kingdom. Sanskrit literature possesses evidences for existence of forts right from the Vedic period. These architectural marvels stand testimony to ancient military might and intelligence. During earlier days, rulers ensured that their capital was fortified either naturally by water ways, mountainous paths and dense forests or artificially by building rampart walls, digging moats and growing thorny plants.

In the present day, forts, though remain as signs of our past history, give us significant insights into the strategies of warfare, the construction materials and town planning, the metals and alloys used for making both defense weapons as well as for domestic activities. They also give valuable information about how people of a particular region overcame the climate and natural environmental impediments using simple locally available materials and innovative ideas. Stepwell and water canals in Hampi, Karnataka and many other such monuments in various places in India stand testimony to the methods of water conservation and irrigation adopted within the citadels of rajas and maharajas of ancient days.

In the present day, forts, though remain as signs of our past history, give us significant insights into the strategies of warfare, the construction materials and town planning, the metals and alloys used for making both defense weapons as well as for domestic activities. They also give valuable information about how people of a particular region overcame the climate and natural environmental impediments using simple locally available materials and innovative ideas. Stepwell and water canals in Hampi, Karnataka and many other such monuments in various places in India stand testimony to the methods of water conservation and irrigation adopted within the citadels of rajas and maharajas of ancient days.

== परिचयः॥I ntroduction ==

== परिचयः॥ Introduction ==

Ancient rulers of India attached great importance to the construction and maintenance of forts and fortresses, for they served as the main base to defend the country against invasions of the enemy. Bhishma describes the qualities of such a place of residence of a raja to Yudhishtira,<blockquote>यत्पुरं दुर्गसम्पन्नं धान्यायुधसमन्वितम्। दृढप्राकारपरिखं हस्त्यश्वरथसङ्कुलम्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.6)</blockquote><blockquote>विद्वांसः शिल्पिनो यत्र निचयाश्च सुसञ्चिताः। धार्मिकश्च जनो यत्र दाक्ष्यमुत्तममास्थितः॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.7)</blockquote>Summary: Characteristically a raja should inhabit that kind of a place (fortress or city) which had the following features

Ancient rulers of India attached great importance to the construction and maintenance of forts and fortresses, for they served as the main base to defend the country against invasions of the enemy. Bhishma describes the qualities of such a place of residence of a raja to Yudhishtira,<ref name=":3">Pt. Ramnarayandatt Shastri. ''Mahabharata of Veda Vyasa, Shanti Parva Volume 5 Hindi Translation.''  Gorakhpur: Gita Press (Pages 4647-4648)</ref><blockquote>यत्पुरं दुर्गसम्पन्नं धान्यायुधसमन्वितम्। दृढप्राकारपरिखं हस्त्यश्वरथसङ्कुलम्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.6)</blockquote><blockquote>विद्वांसः शिल्पिनो यत्र निचयाश्च सुसञ्चिताः। धार्मिकश्च जनो यत्र दाक्ष्यमुत्तममास्थितः॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.7)</blockquote>Summary: Characteristically a raja should inhabit that kind of a place (fortress or city) which had the following features

* surrounded with strong gates and huge walls

* surrounded with strong gates and huge walls

* fortifications either natural or artificial

* fortifications either natural or artificial

* having a strong judicial system  

* having a strong judicial system  

* having place of music and arts

* having place of music and arts

Further such a habitation should always be filled with strong people engaged in various social and cultural activities, where houses are built in an orderly manner, well decorated and people live fearlessly in them. Such a place should be filled with the sounds of vedic recitations and worship of devatas should continue uninterruptedly.<ref>Pt. Ramnarayandatt Shastri. ''Mahabharata of Veda Vyasa, Shanti Parva Volume 5 Hindi Translation.''  Gorakhpur: Gita Press (Pages 4647-4648)</ref>

Further such a habitation should always be filled with strong people engaged in various social and cultural activities, where houses are built in an orderly manner, well decorated and people live fearlessly in them. Such a place should be filled with the sounds of vedic recitations and worship of devatas should continue uninterruptedly.<ref name=":3" /> A fort offers exceptional ways of defense; standing behind the battlements of the citadel one archer (धनुर्धरः) could easily withstand one hundred archers and one hundred archers ten thousand such men.<blockquote>एकः शतं योधयति प्राकारस्थो धनुर्धरः । शतं दशसहस्राणि तस्माद्दुर्गं विधीयते । । ७.७४ । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.74)<ref name=":4">Manusmrti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 7])</ref></blockquote>

== Literary References of Forts ==

== Literary References of Forts ==

Several ancient literary references to fortresses are available which are both interesting and valuable. Rigveda mentions about tribes living in fortifications known by पूर् । Pur, more like the suffix of city names used till date. Brahmana literature also features many references to citadels used by the rulers. In Kaushitaki Brahmana, Upaasadas are described as the citadels of Asuras. Interesting anecdote about the Tripurasuras, the three asura brothers who built cities of gold, silver and iron in different strata of earth and who were killed by Shiva, may be recollected in the puranas. It may be safely said that the use of forts was well known to the people of vedic times.<ref name=":2">Dikshitar, Ramachandra. V. R. (1944) ''War in Ancient India.'' London: MacMillian and Co., Ltd. (Page 247)</ref>

Several ancient literary references to fortresses are available which are both interesting and valuable. '''Rigveda''' mentions about tribes living in fortifications known by पूर् । Pur, more like the suffix of city names used till date. Brahmana literature also features many references to citadels used by the rulers. In '''Kaushitaki Brahmana''', Upaasadas are described as the citadels of Asuras. Interesting anecdote about the Tripurasuras, the three asura brothers who built cities of gold, silver and iron in different strata of earth and who were killed by Shiva, may be recollected in the puranas. It may be safely said that the use of forts was well known to the people of vedic times.<ref name=":2">Dikshitar, Ramachandra. V. R. (1944) ''War in Ancient India.'' London: MacMillian and Co., Ltd. (Page 247)</ref>

Among the Dharmashastras, Manusmrti details the kinds and usage of forts in general. According to Manu, <blockquote>धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं अब्दुर्गं वार्क्षं एव वा । नृदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं वा समाश्रित्य वसेत्पुरम् । । ७.७० । ।</blockquote><blockquote>सर्वेण तु प्रयत्नेन गिरिदुर्गं समाश्रयेत् । एषां हि बाहुगुण्येन गिरिदुर्गं विशिष्यते । । ७.७१ । ।</blockquote><blockquote>एकः शतं योधयति प्राकारस्थो धनुर्धरः । शतं दशसहस्राणि तस्माद्दुर्गं विधीयते । । ७.७४ । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.74)</blockquote>In the Ramayana, we find extensive description of fort cities of Ayodhya of Ikshvaku dynasty and the Lankapuri of Ravanasura. Apart from description of the common features of a fort such as huge insurmountable walls, moats, openings covered with invisible obstructions, huge gates sealed with massive beams and bolts, gateways and broad passages, residential quarters, Hanuman refers to Attalakas which were places for locating both movable and immovable defense weapons and chaitya for the worship of the guardian deity of the country.  

Agnipurana (Agni. Pura. 222)<ref>Agni Purana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 222])</ref> and '''Manusmrti''' among Dharmashastras details the six kinds of forts and their usage in general. Both texts agree that all rulers should with willful effort include Giridurga (hill fortress) for it is by many qualities superior (in offering protection).<ref name=":2" /> <blockquote>सर्वेण तु प्रयत्नेन गिरिदुर्गं समाश्रयेत् । एषां हि बाहुगुण्येन गिरिदुर्गं विशिष्यते । । ७.७१ । । (Manu. Smrt. 7.71)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>In the '''Ramayana''', we find extensive description of fort cities of Ayodhya of Ikshvaku dynasty and the Lankapuri of Ravanasura. Apart from description of the common features of a fort such as huge insurmountable walls, moats, openings covered with invisible obstructions, huge gates sealed with massive beams and bolts, gateways and broad passages, residential quarters, Hanuman refers to Attalakas which were places for locating both movable and immovable defense weapons and chaitya for the worship of the guardian deity of the country.  

Mahabharata Shantiparva (राजधर्मानुशासनपर्व) also provides ample information about forts and warfare. According to Bhishma, a fort surrounded by a huge wall and a ditch full of water, furnished with only one entrance is the best (

'''Mahabharata''' Shantiparva (राजधर्मानुशासनपर्व) also provides ample information about forts and warfare. According to Bhishma, a fort surrounded by a huge wall and a ditch full of water, furnished with only one entrance is the best.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>आवासस्तोयवान्दुर्ग एकमार्गः प्रशस्यते॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.100.15)</blockquote>In medieval times the conception of forts was not very different from that in ancient India. '''Kautilya's Arthashastra''' and '''Manasarasilpashastra''' throw light on the construction of forts and warfare of those times. Manasara defines the Padmaka type of a fortress city having eight, twelve or sixteen gates and the whole surrounded by a huge wall and a moat. Manasara is an important text that discusses the [[Nagara Vinyasa Tattvas (नगरविन्यासतत्त्वानि)|Nagaravinyasa tattvas]] or the principles used in town and village planning.

== दुर्गभेदाः ॥ Kinds of Forts ==

== दुर्गभेदाः ॥ Kinds of Forts ==

References to six kinds of fortifications are found in Puranas (Agni Purana Adhyaya 106, Vishnupurana Adhyaya 3) and Mahabharata.<ref name=":2" /> In Shanti parva, (Adhyaya 86) Bhishma describes the place of residence of the rajas, and their forts, and the issues related to ruling the people. <blockquote>षड्विधं दुर्गमास्थाय पुराण्यथ निवेशयेत्। सर्वसम्पत्प्रधानं यद्बाहुल्यं चापि सम्भवेत्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.4)</blockquote><blockquote>धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं तथैव च। मनुष्यदुर्गं अब्दुर्गं वनदुर्गं च तानि षट्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.5)</blockquote>Summary: A raja has to build his new nagara/residence in a suitable wide area having all kinds of abundance, based on six kinds of fortitudes. They are as follows

References to six kinds of fortifications are found in Puranas (Agni Purana Adhyaya 106, Vishnupurana Adhyaya 3) and Mahabharata.<ref name=":2" /> 

 

According to '''Manusmrti''', forts are of following six kinds.<blockquote>धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं अब्दुर्गं वार्क्षं एव वा । नृदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं वा समाश्रित्य वसेत्पुरम् । । ७.७० । ।(Manu. Smrt. 7.71)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>In '''Mahabharata's''' Shanti parva, (Adhyaya 86) Bhishma describes the place of residence of the rajas, and their forts, and the issues related to ruling the people. <blockquote>षड्विधं दुर्गमास्थाय पुराण्यथ निवेशयेत्। सर्वसम्पत्प्रधानं यद्बाहुल्यं चापि सम्भवेत्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.4)</blockquote><blockquote>धन्वदुर्गं महीदुर्गं गिरिदुर्गं तथैव च। मनुष्यदुर्गं अब्दुर्गं वनदुर्गं च तानि षट्॥ (Maha. Shan. 12.86.5)</blockquote>Summary: A raja has to build his new nagara/residence in a suitable wide area having all kinds of abundance, based on six kinds of fortitudes. They are as follows

# धन्वदुर्गं ॥ Dhanvadurga: Also called Marudurg (मरुदुर्गम्), it is a fort covered with sand on all sides.

# धन्वदुर्गं ॥ Dhanvadurga: Also called Marudurg (मरुदुर्गम्), it is a fort covered with sand on all sides.

# महीदुर्गं ॥ Mahidurga: A fort constructed underground in a plain area

# महीदुर्गं ॥ Mahidurga: A fort constructed underground in a plain area

# अब्दुर्गं ॥ Abdurga: A fort surrounded by water on all sides  

# अब्दुर्गं ॥ Abdurga: A fort surrounded by water on all sides  

# वनदुर्गं ॥ Vanadurga: A fort in the midst of thick forest area

# वनदुर्गं ॥ Vanadurga: A fort in the midst of thick forest area

According to Shukraniti, there are different types of forts, based on the physical location of the site and on the basis of the troops or allies involved. Among these, Parikha (पारिखः) is a fortress is surrounded on all sides by ditches, Parigha (पारिघः) is the one that is protected by walls of bricks, stones and mud. Dhanva (धन्वदुर्गः) has no water around it; whereas Jala (जलदुर्गः) is the fort that is surrounded by abundant sheets of water. Giri (गिरिदुर्गः) fort is on a high-level and is supplied with plenty of water. Sahaya (सहाय​) is the fort that is created by valorous and friendly kinsfolk. <blockquote>परितस्तु महाखातं पारिखं दुर्गमेव तत्। इष्ककोपेलमृद्भित्तिप्राकारं पारिघं स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.2)</blockquote>It also brings out the order of preference of the various types of forts in the following shloka<blockquote>परिखादैरिणं श्रेष्ठं पारिघं तु ततो वनम्। ततो धन्वजलं तस्माद् गिरिदुर्गं ततः स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.6)</blockquote>

According to '''Shukraniti''', there are different types of forts, based on the physical location of the site and on the basis of the troops or allies involved. Among these, Parikha (पारिखः) is a fortress is surrounded on all sides by ditches, Parigha (पारिघः) is the one that is protected by walls of bricks, stones and mud. Dhanva (धन्वदुर्गः) has no water around it; whereas Jala (जलदुर्गः) is the fort that is surrounded by abundant sheets of water. Giri (गिरिदुर्गः) fort is on a high-level and is supplied with plenty of water. Sahaya (सहाय​) is the fort that is created by valorous and friendly kinsfolk. <blockquote>परितस्तु महाखातं पारिखं दुर्गमेव तत्। इष्ककोपेलमृद्भित्तिप्राकारं पारिघं स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.2)</blockquote>It also brings out the order of preference of the various types of forts in the following shloka<blockquote>परिखादैरिणं श्रेष्ठं पारिघं तु ततो वनम्। ततो धन्वजलं तस्माद् गिरिदुर्गं ततः स्मृतम्॥ (Shuk. Niti. 4.6.6)</blockquote>

== दुर्गनिर्माणम् ॥ Design of Forts ==

== दुर्गनिर्माणम् ॥ Design of Forts ==

=== Yantras in a Fort ===

=== Yantras in a Fort ===

There were a variety of weapons housed inside the fort to attack enemy and defend the fort. There are basically two types of such instruments. One is sthira and the other cala. Arthashastra mentions enlists a number of weapons:<blockquote>सर्वतोभद्रजामदग्न्यबहुमुखविश्वासघातिसङ्घाटीयानकपर्जन्यकबाहूर्ध्वबाह्वर्ध्बाहूनि स्थितयन्त्राणि। (Arth. Shas. 2.18.5)<ref name=":0">Arthashastra (Adhikarana 2, Adhyaya 18)  

There were a variety of weapons housed inside the fort to attack enemy and defend the fort. There are basically two types of such instruments. One is sthira and the other cala. Arthashastra mentions enlists a number of weapons:<blockquote>सर्वतोभद्रजामदग्न्यबहुमुखविश्वासघातिसङ्घाटीयानकपर्जन्यकबाहूर्ध्वबाह्वर्ध्बाहूनि स्थितयन्त्राणि। (Arth. Shas. 2.18.5)<ref name=":0">Arthashastra (Adhikarana 2, Adhyaya 18)  

</ref></blockquote><blockquote>पाञ्चालिकदेवदण्डसूकरिकामुसलयष्टिहस्तिवारकतालवृन्तमुद्ग्ररगदास्पृक्तलाकुद्दालास्फोटिमोत्पाटिमोद्घाटिमशतग्नित्रिशूलचक्राणि चलयन्त्राणि।(Arth. Shas. 2.18.6)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Dr. Raghavan in his Mechanical Contrivances presents a clear picture of the various [[Yantra Shastra (यन्त्रशास्त्रम्)|yantra]] or weapons used in forts.<ref name=":1">Raghavan, V. (1952) ''Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in  Ancient India''. Bangalore: The Indian Institute of Culture</ref>

</ref></blockquote><blockquote>पाञ्चालिकदेवदण्डसूकरिकामुसलयष्टिहस्तिवारकतालवृन्तमुद्ग्ररगदास्पृक्तलाकुद्दालास्फोटिमोत्पाटिमोद्घाटिमशतग्नित्रिशूलचक्राणि चलयन्त्राणि। (Arth. Shas. 2.18.6)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>Dr. Raghavan in his Mechanical Contrivances presents a clear picture of the various [[Yantra Shastra (यन्त्रशास्त्रम्)|yantra]] or weapons used in forts.<ref name=":1">Raghavan, V. (1952) ''Yantras or Mechanical Contrivances in  Ancient India''. Bangalore: The Indian Institute of Culture</ref>

==== Types of Sthirayantras (स्थिरयन्त्रम्) ====

==== Types of Sthirayantras (स्थिरयन्त्रम्) ====

==== Types of Chalayantras (चलयन्त्रम्) ====

==== Types of Chalayantras (चलयन्त्रम्) ====

* Pancalika (पाञ्चालिका) It has sharp protruding points and is thrown in the waters of the moat  

* Pancalika (पाञ्चालिका): It has sharp protruding points and is thrown in the waters of the moat  

* Devadanda (देवदण्डः) is a long cylindrical cannon-like tool placed on the parapet walls of the fort  

* Devadanda (देवदण्डः): It is a long cylindrical cannon-like tool placed on the parapet walls of the fort  

* Sukarika (सूकरिका) It is  huge,creates obstruction on the path and when suspended on the walls prevents scaling by the enemies. Not only this, it also acts as a buffer when enemies fling stones.   

* Sukarika (सूकरिका): It is  huge,creates obstruction on the path and when suspended on the walls prevents scaling by the enemies. Not only this, it also acts as a buffer when enemies fling stones.   

* Musala (मुसलः)  

* Musala (मुसलः)  

* Yashti (यष्टिः)  

* Yashti (यष्टिः)  

* Hastivaraka (हस्तिवारकः) It is a two or three pronged iron rod which strikes elephants  

* Hastivaraka (हस्तिवारकः): It is a two or three pronged iron rod which strikes elephants  

* Hastiparigha (हस्तिपरिघः) It is a machine which hurls iron rods at elephants to smite or demoralise them  

* Hastiparigha (हस्तिपरिघः): It is a machine which hurls iron rods at elephants to smite or demoralise them  

* Talavrinta (तालवृन्तम्) This creates a tempest kind of effect  

* Talavrinta (तालवृन्तम्): This creates a tempest kind of effect  

* Mudgara (मुद्गरः)  

* Mudgara (मुद्गरः)  

* Gada (गदा)  

* Gada (गदा)  

* Kuddala (कुद्दालः)  

* Kuddala (कुद्दालः)  

* Asphotima (आस्फोटिमयन्त्रम्) has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and throws stones  

* Asphotima (आस्फोटिमयन्त्रम्) has four feet, is covered by hide, has a projectile and throws stones  

* Udghatima (उद्घाटिमयन्त्रम्) This is a machine which has iron bars fitted to it and demolishes walls  

* Udghatima (उद्घाटिमयन्त्रम्): This is a machine which has iron bars fitted to it and demolishes walls  

* Utpatima (उत्पाटिमयन्त्रम्)This uproots and tears up things  

* Utpatima (उत्पाटिमयन्त्रम्): This uproots and tears up things  

* Trishula (त्रिशूलम्)  

* Trishula (त्रिशूलम्)  

* Cakra (चक्रम्) and 

* Cakra (चक्रम्)  

* Shataghni (शतघ्नी)  

* Shataghni (शतघ्नी)