Changes

==== Agriculture ====

==== Agriculture ====

The most popular occupation of the Sutra period a bulk of ancient Bharatiya economy depended upon agriculture. The greater part of Bharat's population then lived in the villages and occupied themselves with agriculture, cattle breeding and local handicrafts. Self sufficiency was the key and every village produced most of its needs. A village was a well-knit economic unit in the Sutra period. Focus on agriculture and production of food grains was of high priority by all people of the society. Though it was regarded as the normal occupation of the Vaishyas, people of all varnas practiced it. The Shrauta and Grhyasutras attach great importance to agriculture and we see a number of ceremonies connected with agricultural operations in these texts. Land ownership laws, dispute resolution, share of produce, land leasing, river, canal and well irrigation systems were all well defined. Sita yajna, performed at the time of the first ploughing of the land, and many such rituals to be performed at the time of sowing the crop are described in the Grhyasutras.  <blockquote>घृतेन सीतेति सीतायज्ञस्य ७ या ओषधय इति बीजवपनीयस्य ८ (Kath. Grhy. Sutr. 71. 7-8)<ref>Kathaka Grhyasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Cultivation of soil was undoubtedly dependent on rains to a great extent and the system is more or less similar to the one that is seen in the present day. The sutras frequently refer to rituals for procuring good rains. The sutra अनूषरमविवदिष्णु भूम २ । (Asvh. Grhy. Sutr. 2.7.2)<ref>Ashvalayana Grhyasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref> clearly lays down that a house should be built on an indisputable plot of land. Farmers were generally required to pay one-sixth of the agricultural produce as land-revenue to the king.

The most popular occupation of the Sutra period a bulk of ancient Bharatiya economy depended upon agriculture. The greater part of Bharat's population then lived in the villages and occupied themselves with agriculture, cattle breeding and local handicrafts. Self sufficiency was the key and every village produced most of its needs. A village was a well-knit economic unit in the Sutra period. Focus on agriculture and production of food grains was of high priority by all people of the society. Though it was regarded as the normal occupation of the Vaishyas, people of all varnas practiced it. The Shrauta and Grhyasutras attach great importance to agriculture and we see a number of ceremonies connected with agricultural operations in these texts. Land ownership laws, dispute resolution, share of produce, land leasing, river, canal and well irrigation systems were all well defined. Sita yajna, performed at the time of the first ploughing of the land, and many such rituals to be performed at the time of sowing the crop are described in the Grhyasutras.  <blockquote>घृतेन सीतेति सीतायज्ञस्य ७ या ओषधय इति बीजवपनीयस्य ८ (Kath. Grhy. Sutr. 71. 7-8)<ref>Kathaka Grhyasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Cultivation of soil was undoubtedly dependent on rains to a great extent and the system is more or less similar to the one that is seen in the present day. The sutras frequently refer to rituals for procuring good rains. The sutra अनूषरमविवदिष्णु भूम २ । (Asvh. Grhy. Sutr. 2.7.2)<ref name=":5">Ashvalayana Grhyasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref> clearly lays down that a house should be built on an indisputable plot of land. Farmers were generally required to pay one-sixth of the agricultural produce as land-revenue to the king.

==== Animal Husbandry ====

==== Animal Husbandry ====

* Weaving was a flourishing industry and the sutra texts mention numerous varieties of clothes. Cotton, wool, hemp and flax were generally used for weaving cloth. Though the entire process of preparation of clothes is not mentioned in the Sutras, Paraskara's reference to a full spindle shows that yarn was spun with a charkha.   

* Weaving was a flourishing industry and the sutra texts mention numerous varieties of clothes. Cotton, wool, hemp and flax were generally used for weaving cloth. Though the entire process of preparation of clothes is not mentioned in the Sutras, Paraskara's reference to a full spindle shows that yarn was spun with a charkha.   

* Baudhayana Shrautasutras (15.16) अथैतान्नखकृतः सँ शास्त्यपरिमितान्यष्टमानि कुरुते..। <ref name=":1" /> further mention about making articles of leather or leather receptacles for storing ghee, honey, rice, flattened rice, barley, flours of different grains and seeds, this indicates that leather industry was well developed during that time.   

* Baudhayana Shrautasutras (15.16) अथैतान्नखकृतः सँ शास्त्यपरिमितान्यष्टमानि कुरुते..। <ref name=":1" /> further mention about making articles of leather or leather receptacles for storing ghee, honey, rice, flattened rice, barley, flours of different grains and seeds, this indicates that leather industry was well developed during that time.   

* Paraskara Grhyasutras (2.5.17-19) mention specifically about the Uttariya (upper garment) made of Ajina (animal hide), i.e., the upper garment of a Upanayana student should be made of animal hide. A Brahmin student's garment should be made of the skin of an antelope; that of a Kshatriya student should be made of the skin of a spotted deer; and that of a Vaisya student should be made of a goat's skin or a cow's skin.<ref>Bakhre, Mahadeva Gangadhar, (1982 Second Edition) ''Grihya-Sutra by Paraskar with the commentaries of Karka Upadhyaya, Jayaram, Harihar, Gadadhar and Vishvanath.'' New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (Page 220 - 224)</ref> Animal skins had special sanctity during the performance of yajnas.  

* Paraskara Grhyasutras (2.5.17-20) mention specifically about the Uttariya (upper garment) made of Ajina (animal hide), i.e., the upper garment of a Upanayana student should be made of animal hide. A Brahmin student's garment should be made of the skin of an antelope; that of a Kshatriya student should be made of the skin of a spotted deer; and that of a Vaisya student should be made of a goat's skin or a cow's skin.<ref>Bakhre, Mahadeva Gangadhar, (1982 Second Edition) ''Grihya-Sutra by Paraskar with the commentaries of Karka Upadhyaya, Jayaram, Harihar, Gadadhar and Vishvanath.'' New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (Page 220 - 224)</ref> Animal skins had special sanctity during the performance of yajnas.  

<blockquote>ऐणेयमजिनमुत्तरीयं ब्राह्मणस्य १७ रौरवं राजन्यस्य १८ आजं गव्यं वा वैश्यस्य १९ सर्वेषां वा गव्यमसति प्रधानत्वात् २० (Para. Grhy. Sutr. 2.5.17-20)<ref>Paraskara Grhya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>ऐणेयमजिनमुत्तरीयं ब्राह्मणस्य १७ रौरवं राजन्यस्य १८ आजं गव्यं वा वैश्यस्य १९ सर्वेषां वा गव्यमसति प्रधानत्वात् २० (Para. Grhy. Sutr. 2.5.17-20)<ref>Paraskara Grhya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>

==== Trade and Commerce ====

==== Trade and Commerce ====

Trade was no doubt an important occupation of the Sutra period. The first three varnas, the dvijas, are allowed by the Dharmasutras to practice trade. Cereals, livestock, cloth, wool, liquors, herbs, metals, hides, salt, wood, agricultural implements, ropes, utensils, condiments,  jewellery, perfumes, pepper, and arms were the main articles of trade. The sale of cooked food is also referred to in the Sutras. Asv Grh 4.4,15. Vas.DS 4.15, Gaut DS 7,19. Haggling over the price of Soma is referred to in the Kat. SS (7.8.1-12)  

Trade was no doubt an important occupation of the Sutra period. The first three varnas, the dvijas, are allowed by the Dharmasutras to practice trade. Cereals, livestock, cloth, wool, liquors, herbs, metals, hides, salt, wood, agricultural implements, ropes, utensils, condiments,  jewellery, perfumes, pepper, and arms were the main articles of trade. The sale of cooked food is also referred to in the Sutras as in क्रीतोत्पन्नेन वा वर्तेरन् १५ (Ashv. Grhy. Sutr. 4.4.15)<ref name=":5" />. Sale of the sacred Soma has been mentioned and it is amusing to note that haggling over the price of Soma is referred to in the following sections of Katyayana Shrautasutras. <blockquote>स आह सोमविक्रयिन् क्रय्यस्ते सोमो राजा इति २ क्रय्य इत्याह सोमविक्रयी ३ तं वै ते क्रीणानीति ४ क्रीणीहीत्याह सोमविक्रयी ५ कलया ते क्रीणानीति ६ भूयो वा अतः सोमो राजाऽर्हतीत्याह सोमविक्रयी ७.... (Katy. Shrau. Sutr. 7.8.2-7)<ref>Katyayana Shrautasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4 Adhyaya 7])</ref></blockquote>Sutras describe the occupations suitable to each varna and alternatives, when their original occupation is not possible, in times of adversity. Gautama Dharmasutras for example, explain that a Brahmin may live by the occupations of a Kshatriya and when these are unavailable, by the occupations of a Vaishya.  <blockquote>तस्यापण्यम् ॥ गन्धरसकृतान्नतिलशानक्षौमाजिनानि ॥ रक्तनिर्णिक्ते वाससी ॥ क्षीरं सविकारम् ॥ मूलफलपुष्पौषधमधुमांसतृणोदकापथ्यानि ॥ पशवश् च हिंसासंयोगे ॥ पुरुशवशाकुमारीवेहतश् च नित्यम् ॥ भूमिव्रीहियवाजाव्यश्वऋषभधेन्वनडुहश् चैके ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 7.8-15)<ref name=":6">Gautama Dharmasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>One may not trade in the following good: perfumes, condiments, cooked or prepared foods (कृतान्नम्), sesame seeds, hemp or linen cloth, animal skins, clothes that are dyed red or washed, milk and milk products, roots, fruits, flowers, medicinal plants, honey, flesh, grass, water, and apathya foods (अपथ्यानि), animals and those activities associated with slaughter. At all times he should refrain from trade in human beings, barren cows, heifers, and pregnant cows. Few mention that one may not also trade in land, vreehi (food grains), yava (barley), goats, sheep, horses, bulls, cows, and oxen.

Gautama Dharmasutras mention the occupations of the four varnas; the primary activities of a dvija (the first three varnas who undergo initiation) include adhyayana (vedic studies), performing yajnas and giving away gifts (danas). <blockquote>द्विजातीनाम् अध्ययनम् इज्या दानम् ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.1)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>Then the exceptions are mentioned where vedas may be imparted by Brahmins in exchange for knowledge or money. One may note the prescribed interchange of occupations, as seen in the case where brahmins are allowed to engage in agriculture and trade if he does not do the work himself (कृषिवाणिज्ये वास्वयंकृते ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.5), including other vaishya related activities of lending money on interest.

However, the Brahmanas were prohibited to trade in bulls, horses, cows, perfumes, prepared food, sesamum, skins, medicines flesh, honey, grass, and other things. 28 Like agricultural rites, Sutras prescribe certain rites for those who desire to gain success in trade. 29 Page 140. A rite for successful business trip is mentioned in Kausika Sutra (42, 1-5)  

Like agricultural rites to increase crop yields, Sutras prescribe certain rites for those who desire to gain success in trade. 29 Page. A rite for successful business trip is mentioned in Kausika Sutra (42, 1-5)

Trade in exchange for commodities was prevalent as was purchasing them for money. Sea voyages and travel to distant places to promote trade and commerce are described in the Sutra granthas Baudh DS (1.1.2.4) refers to travel overseas undertaken by the Northerners.   

Trade in exchange for commodities was prevalent as was purchasing them for money. Sea voyages and travel to distant places to promote trade and commerce are described in the Sutra granthas Baudh DS (1.1.2.4) refers to travel overseas undertaken by the Northerners.   

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