Changes

==== Animal Husbandry ====

==== Animal Husbandry ====

Livestock breeding was an important occupation of the Sutra period. Raising large cattle herds were considered as signs of auspiciousness and prosperity in those times. People kept big herds of cows, horses, goats and sheep. Herds of cows were so big that they were given away in hundreds and thousands as dakshina in yajnas (a form of charity to priests during yajnas). Many Shrauta yajnas describe the giving away of a large number of cows as dakshina, for example a lakh cows at the time of Rajasuya yajna.(Kat.S. S 15.4.43)

Livestock breeding was an important occupation of the Sutra period. Raising large cattle herds were considered as signs of auspiciousness and prosperity in those times. People kept big herds of cows, horses, goats and sheep. Herds of cows were so big that they were given away in hundreds and thousands as dakshina in yajnas (a form of charity to priests during yajnas). Many Shrauta yajnas describe the giving away of a large number of cows as dakshina, for example शतं सहस्राणि दक्षिणा ४३ । (Katy. Shrau. Sutr. 15.4.43)<ref>Katyayana Shrauta Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4 Adhyaya 15])</ref> a lakh cows at the time of Rajasuya yajna.

The sutras describe a number of ceremonies connected with cattle welfare and breeding. The Shugalava (a pakayajna) was performed every year. Vrshotsarga is one of the very important cattle related ceremonies (even followed in the present days) when a bull is let loose for the purposes of breeding. Many rituals for protection of the cows and calves and for their health are mentioned in the Kaushika Sutras. The Manava GS (2.6) describes a ritual which was performed annually for the welfare of the horses.  

The sutras describe a number of ceremonies connected with cattle welfare and breeding. The Shugalava (a pakayajna) was performed every year. Vrshotsarga is one of the very important cattle related ceremonies (even followed in the present days) when a bull is let loose for the purposes of breeding. Many rituals for the health and protection of the cows and calves are mentioned in the Kaushika Sutras. The Manava GS (2.6) describes a ritual which was performed annually for the welfare of the horses.  

==== Handicrafts ====

==== Handicrafts ====

Several handicrafts, such as pottery, carpentry, metal-work, jewellery, weaving, leather-work, and glass-work were common in the sutra period, practiced on cottage industry basis. Carpenters, the indispensable artisans for society, made ploughs, carts, household furniture and chariots. Chariot making was extremely important and such skilled persons were highly distinguished forming a separate class of people from carpenters. Jewellery and ornament making was highly developed in the sutra period. We find many references to workers in stone, needlework, ropemaking, and basketmaking in the sutra texts. To work for the raja one day a month without wages was the usual form of tax which the handicraftsmen were required to pay to the State.   

Several handicrafts, such as pottery, carpentry, metal-work, jewellery, weaving, leather-work, and glass-work were common in the sutra period, practiced on cottage industry basis. Carpenters, the indispensable artisans for society, made ploughs, carts, household furniture and chariots. Chariot making was extremely important and such skilled persons were highly distinguished forming a separate class of people from carpenters. Jewellery and ornament making was highly developed in the sutra period. We find many references to workers in stone, needlework, ropemaking, and basket-making in the sutra texts. To work for the raja one day a month without wages was the usual form of tax which the handicraftsmen were required to pay to the State. Prashna 15<ref name=":1">Baudhayana Shrauta Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4% Prashna 15])</ref> of the Baudhayana Shrautasutras discusses the Ashvamedha Yajna and here we find quite a few references to the artisans who participate in the yajna summarized as follows  

* Baudh SS 15.14 mentions that potters were invited and instructed by the Maharaja to manufacture bricks, big and small cooking vessels required for the performance of Ashvamedha yajna.  

* The artisans are brought close to him (the Raja performing the Asvamedha yajna) - carpenters (तक्षाणः) chariot-makers (रथकृतः) leather-workers (मयस्कृतः), potters (कुलालः), the two types of smiths (द्वयाः कर्माराः) (for gold and iron), and receptacle-makers (नखकृतः). He then instructs the carpenter.  

* Baudh SS 15. 13-14 mentions chariot-makers as distinct from carpenters and lays down that carpenters are instructed to make yupas for the yajnas (long posts to tie the animals), wooden vessels (used during the yajnas), carts, seating places, etc and that chariot-makers are instructed to manufacture chariots only.  

<blockquote>...कर्मकृत उपसंगच्छन्ते तक्षाणश्च रथकृतश्च मयस्कृतश्च कुलालाश्च द्वयाः कर्मारा नखकृतः सप्तमेऽथैताँ स्तक्ष्णः सँ शास्ति १३ (Baud. Shrau. Sutr. 15.13)</blockquote>

* Baudh SS 15.13 mentions about blacksmiths and goldsmiths separately. Goldsmiths generally make ornaments of gold and silver, while blacksmiths manufactured articles of iron, copper, and bell-metal. Manufacture of war weapons, tools for agriculture, carpentry apart from household requirements were prepared by blacksmiths. Gobhil GS mentions a vessal made of bell-metal and the Asv GS mentions vessels made of copper, metal, stone and clay. (19th reference).  

* He instructs the carpenters to prepare the yupas for the yajna (posts to tie the animals) of various sizes and wooden implements such as spoons with long hands, big carts, wheels, carriages and wagons,. He then instructs the chariot-makers separately to manufacture special chariots.<ref name=":2">Kashikar,  C. G. (2003) ''The Baudhayana Srautasutra, Volume 3''.  New Delhi: Indira Gandhi National Centre for the Arts and Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (Pages 965-969)</ref>

* He instructs the potters to manufacture as many bricks as may be adequate for piling up the chiti (altar), numerous big and small cooking vessels required for the performance of Ashvamedha yajna.

* Here in Baudhayana shrauta sutra 15.13 and 15.15 blacksmiths and goldsmiths are mentioned separately. Goldsmiths generally make ornaments of gold and silver, while blacksmiths manufactured articles of iron, copper, and bell-metal. The Maharaja instructs the blacksmith to prepare arrow-tips and arrows of metals such as iron, bronze, lead and a cooking pot made of iron. He instructs the goldsmiths to prepare gold coins, pots of gold and silver, and ornaments of such as pins, girdles, fans, garlands of gold and silver for royal use.<ref name=":2" />

* Manufacture of war weapons, tools for agriculture, carpentry apart from household requirements were prepared by blacksmiths. Gobhil GS mentions a vessel made of bell-metal (अथ हविर्निर्वपति व्रीहीन्वा यवान्वा कँसेन वा चरुस्थाल्या वा २) (Gobh.Grhy. Sutr. 1.7.2) and the Asv GS mentions vessels made of copper, metal, stone and clay. (19th reference).

* The use of mirror is frequently prescribed in the Sutras. A mirror is presented to the bride at the time of marriage and was also used during performance of tonsure and Simantonnayana. Ornaments of glass are also mentioned in Srautasutras.  

* The use of mirror is frequently prescribed in the Sutras. A mirror is presented to the bride at the time of marriage and was also used during performance of tonsure and Simantonnayana. Ornaments of glass are also mentioned in Srautasutras.  

* Weaving was a flourishing industry and the sutra texts mention numerous varieties of clothes. Cotton, wool, hemp and flax were generally used for weaving cloth. Though the entire process of preparation of clothes is not mentioned in the Sutras, Paraskara's reference to a full spindle shows that yarn was spun with a charkha.   

* Weaving was a flourishing industry and the sutra texts mention numerous varieties of clothes. Cotton, wool, hemp and flax were generally used for weaving cloth. Though the entire process of preparation of clothes is not mentioned in the Sutras, Paraskara's reference to a full spindle shows that yarn was spun with a charkha.   

* Baudh S S 15, 14 mentions about making articles of leather, this indicates that leather industry was well developed during that time. Parask. 2.5.17-19 mentions specifically about Ajina, the upper garment of a Upanayana student should be made of animal hide. A Brahmin student's garment should be made of the skin of an antelope; that of a Kshatriya student should be made of the skin of a spotted deer; and that of a Vaisya student should be made of a goat's skin or a cow's skin. Animal skins had special sanctity during the performance of yajnas.  

* Baudhayana Shrautasutras (15.16) अथैतान्नखकृतः सँ शास्त्यपरिमितान्यष्टमानि कुरुते..। <ref name=":1" /> further mention about making articles of leather or leather receptacles for storing ghee, honey, rice, flattened rice, barley, flours of different grains and seeds, this indicates that leather industry was well developed during that time.

* Paraskara Grhyasutras (2.5.17-19) mention specifically about the Uttariya (upper garment) made of Ajina (animal hide), i.e., the upper garment of a Upanayana student should be made of animal hide. A Brahmin student's garment should be made of the skin of an antelope; that of a Kshatriya student should be made of the skin of a spotted deer; and that of a Vaisya student should be made of a goat's skin or a cow's skin.<ref>Bakhre, Mahadeva Gangadhar, (1982 Second Edition) ''Grihya-Sutra by Paraskar with the commentaries of Karka Upadhyaya, Jayaram, Harihar, Gadadhar and Vishvanath.'' New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers Pvt. Ltd. (Page 220 - 224)</ref> Animal skins had special sanctity during the performance of yajnas.  

==== Trade and Commerce ====

==== Trade and Commerce ====