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=== Jñāna Yoga: The Path of Knowledge ===

=== Jñāna Yoga: The Path of Knowledge ===

The term ''jñāna'' denotes knowledge. This path of Yoga is about acquiring right knowledge of the ultimate truth, i.e., ''brahman''<ref>Radhakrishnan S (2015) The philosophy of Hinduism. Niyogi Offsets, New Delhi</ref>. In Indian traditional wisdom, the notion of ''Brahman'' is not different than the true self ''Ātman''. It is not an alien to the self; perhaps, it is the true self. Various ''Upaniṣadas'' uphold that the seat of Brahman is the core of the true self. ''Śvetāśvetaropaniṣada'', one of the principal ''Upaniṣada'', considers human beings as children of immortal bliss:<blockquote>''śṛṇvantu biśve amṛtasya putrā'' | ''ā ye dhāmāni dibyāni tasthuḥ'' || ( ''Śvetāśvetaropaniṣada'', 2.5)</blockquote><blockquote>Translation: May all the sons of the Immmortal listen, even those who have reached their heavenly abodes<ref>(Radhkrishnan [[:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR46|''1953'']], 2016, p. 720).</ref>.</blockquote>The never-changing, imperishable ''Brahman'' residing in the self is enveloped by layers of ignorance. ''Jñāna Yoga'' is a process to gain the right knowledge of “who am I” and sustaining the stage of being into oneness with the Self.

The term ''jñāna'' denotes knowledge. This path of Yoga is about acquiring right knowledge of the ultimate truth, i.e., ''brahman''<ref>Radhakrishnan S (2015) The philosophy of Hinduism. Niyogi Offsets, New Delhi</ref>. In Indian traditional wisdom, the notion of ''Brahman'' is not different than the true self ''Ātman''. It is not an alien to the self; perhaps, it is the true self. Various ''Upaniṣadas'' uphold that the seat of Brahman is the core of the true self. ''Śvetāśvetaropaniṣada'', one of the principal ''Upaniṣada'', considers human beings as children of immortal bliss:<blockquote>''śṛṇvantu biśve amṛtasya putrā'' | ''ā ye dhāmāni dibyāni tasthuḥ'' || ( ''Śvetāśvetaropaniṣada'', 2.5)</blockquote><blockquote>Translation: May all the sons of the Immmortal listen, even those who have reached their heavenly abodes<ref>(Radhkrishnan [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR46 ''1953''], 2016, p. 720).</ref>.</blockquote>The never-changing, imperishable ''Brahman'' residing in the self is enveloped by layers of ignorance. ''Jñāna Yoga'' is a process to gain the right knowledge of “who am I” and sustaining the stage of being into oneness with the Self.

''Jñāna Yoga'' requires aspirants to ask themselves one simple question “who am I?” The answers to this question may make a long list including name, physical body, social roles, relations with other people, thoughts, attitudes, values, etc. The next stage is the critical examination of these answers. Sri Aurobindo<ref>Aurobindo S (1992) Growing within: the psychology of inner development. Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust, Pondicherry</ref> suggests ''dhyāna'' to gain the knowledge of true self. ''Dhyāna'' includes the idea of meditation as well as contemplation. The first step in ''dhyāna'' is the concentration of the will against the obstacles of meditation (e.g., wandering of mind, sleep, impatience, etc.). The second step is increasing purity and calm of the inner consciousness (''citta'') from where thoughts and emotions arise. Achieving freedom from all disturbing reactions is necessary. The regular and disciplined practice of dhyāna helps practitioners to attain self-realization.

''Jñāna Yoga'' requires aspirants to ask themselves one simple question “who am I?” The answers to this question may make a long list including name, physical body, social roles, relations with other people, thoughts, attitudes, values, etc. The next stage is the critical examination of these answers. Sri Aurobindo<ref>Aurobindo S (1992) Growing within: the psychology of inner development. Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust, Pondicherry</ref> suggests ''dhyāna'' to gain the knowledge of true self. ''Dhyāna'' includes the idea of meditation as well as contemplation. The first step in ''dhyāna'' is the concentration of the will against the obstacles of meditation (e.g., wandering of mind, sleep, impatience, etc.). The second step is increasing purity and calm of the inner consciousness (''citta'') from where thoughts and emotions arise. Achieving freedom from all disturbing reactions is necessary. The regular and disciplined practice of dhyāna helps practitioners to attain self-realization.

Svadharma and Loksangrah are the two principle components of Karma Yoga<ref name=":7">Pandey A, Gupta RK, Arora AP (2009) Spiritual climate of business organizations and its impact on customers’ experience. J Bus Ethics 88(2):313–332.</ref>. The Dharma of an individual self (''sva'') is termed as ''Svadharma''. It is constituted by two factors – profession of a person and phase of life (e.g., student, householder, retired person, etc.)<ref>Bhawuk DPS (2011) Spirituality and Indian psychology. Springer, New York.</ref>. When a person chooses an action according to her chosen profession and phase of life, the person can be said as following “ ''Svadharma.''”

Svadharma and Loksangrah are the two principle components of Karma Yoga<ref name=":7">Pandey A, Gupta RK, Arora AP (2009) Spiritual climate of business organizations and its impact on customers’ experience. J Bus Ethics 88(2):313–332.</ref>. The Dharma of an individual self (''sva'') is termed as ''Svadharma''. It is constituted by two factors – profession of a person and phase of life (e.g., student, householder, retired person, etc.)<ref>Bhawuk DPS (2011) Spirituality and Indian psychology. Springer, New York.</ref>. When a person chooses an action according to her chosen profession and phase of life, the person can be said as following “ ''Svadharma.''”

Following one’s ''svadharma'', a person starts appreciating the interconnectedness and interdependence among the self and the universal system. Subsequently, individual actions become more responsible and get directed toward maintenance of this system<ref name=":1" />. Gradually, the frame of reference behind the action becomes universe-centric. When individual develops the sense of interconnectedness and interdependence between self and nature, and performs actions with the purpose of contributing to larger social and natural environment, it is referred as “''Lokasaṃgraha.''” ''Loka'' means society (people) and cosmic system (nature). ''Saṃgraha'' means to gather, protect, nourish, regulate, etc<ref name=":6" />. ''Lokasaṃgraha'' means binding people together, protecting them to achieve the welfare of the society and leading them on the path of self-realization. The notion of ''Lokasaṃgraha'' involves well-being of all people<ref>Chakraborty SK (2006) The “Nishkam karma” principle: its relevance to effectiveness and ethics. Management 18:115</ref>, welfare of society as whole and humanity <ref>Sharma S (1999) Corporate Gita: lessons for management, administration and leadership. J Hum Values 5(2):103–123 </ref><ref>Sebastian CD (2003) The essential teachings of Bhagavad Gita. Jnanatirtha Int J Sacred Scriptures 3(2):193–203</ref>, concern for social and natural environment<ref name=":7" /> (Pandey et al. [[:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR38|''2009'']]), unity of the world<ref name=":1" /> and interconnectedness of the society<ref>Pandey A, Gupta RK, Kumar P (2016) Spiritual climate and its impact on learning in teams in business organizations. Glob Bus Rev 17(3S).</ref> <ref>Pardasani R, Sharma RR, Bindlish P (2014) Facilitating workplace spirituality: lessons from Indian spiritual traditions. J Manag Dev 33(8/9):847–859.</ref>

Following one’s ''svadharma'', a person starts appreciating the interconnectedness and interdependence among the self and the universal system. Subsequently, individual actions become more responsible and get directed toward maintenance of this system<ref name=":1" />. Gradually, the frame of reference behind the action becomes universe-centric. When individual develops the sense of interconnectedness and interdependence between self and nature, and performs actions with the purpose of contributing to larger social and natural environment, it is referred as “''Lokasaṃgraha.''” ''Loka'' means society (people) and cosmic system (nature). ''Saṃgraha'' means to gather, protect, nourish, regulate, etc<ref name=":6" />. ''Lokasaṃgraha'' means binding people together, protecting them to achieve the welfare of the society and leading them on the path of self-realization. The notion of ''Lokasaṃgraha'' involves well-being of all people<ref>Chakraborty SK (2006) The “Nishkam karma” principle: its relevance to effectiveness and ethics. Management 18:115</ref>, welfare of society as whole and humanity <ref>Sharma S (1999) Corporate Gita: lessons for management, administration and leadership. J Hum Values 5(2):103–123 </ref><ref>Sebastian CD (2003) The essential teachings of Bhagavad Gita. Jnanatirtha Int J Sacred Scriptures 3(2):193–203</ref>, concern for social and natural environment<ref name=":7" /> , unity of the world<ref name=":1" /> and interconnectedness of the society<ref>Pandey A, Gupta RK, Kumar P (2016) Spiritual climate and its impact on learning in teams in business organizations. Glob Bus Rev 17(3S).</ref> <ref>Pardasani R, Sharma RR, Bindlish P (2014) Facilitating workplace spirituality: lessons from Indian spiritual traditions. J Manag Dev 33(8/9):847–859.</ref>

=== Aṣṭāṃga Yoga: The Most Popular Form of Yoga ===

=== Aṣṭāṃga Yoga: The Most Popular Form of Yoga ===

In the present time at the international level, the most popular form of Yoga is one or other adaptation of Aṣṭāṃga Yoga as was systematized by Sage ''Pataṃjali'' during the second century C.E. (Feuerstein [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR63 ''2011''], p. 5). This is known as Aṣṭāṃga Yoga referring to its eight limbs ( ''Aṣṭa'' meaning eight in Sanskrit). The step-by-step process of Aṣṭāṃga Yoga is aimed at Samādhi by restraining the mind stuff (Chitta) from taking various forms. [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#Fn13 ¹³] These goals of Aṣṭāṃga Yoga overlap with some goals of other meditative traditions such as Buddhism (Feuerstein [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR63 ''2011'']), from which the variety of mindfulness practices are originated (Bodhi [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR8 ''2011'']).

In the present time at the international level, the most popular form of Yoga is one or other adaptation of Aṣṭāṃga Yoga as was systematized by Sage ''Pataṃjali'' during the second century C.E.<ref name=":4" />. This is known as Aṣṭāṃga Yoga referring to its eight limbs (''Aṣṭa'' meaning eight in Sanskrit). The step-by-step process of Aṣṭāṃga Yoga is aimed at Samādhi by restraining the mind stuff (Chitta) from taking various forms:<blockquote>“yogashchittavrittinirodhah”<ref>''Pataṃjali Yoga Sutra, 1.2''</ref> </blockquote><blockquote>Yoga is restraining the mind stuff (Chitta) from taking various forms (Vrttis)<ref name=":2" /> Yoga is the control of the whirls of the mind (Translation by Feuerstein<ref name=":8">Feuerstein G (2003) The deeper dimension of yoga: Theory and practice. Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications Inc</ref>).</blockquote>These goals of Aṣṭāṃga Yoga overlap with some goals of other meditative traditions such as Buddhism<ref name=":4" /> from which the variety of mindfulness practices are originated.

''Pataṃjali''’s Aṣṭāṃga yoga is the eight distinct and connected groups of practices aimed toward the regulation of mind and its afflictions and attaining Samādhi. In his ''Yoga-sūtra'' (Treatise on Yoga), these groups of practices are called the eight limbs and include social and personal observances (Yama and Niyama), physical postures (Āsana), regulation of vitality through breath (Prāṇāyāma), withdrawal of senses from external world (Pratyāhāra,), concentration (Dhāraṇā, effortful, focused attention), meditation (Dhyāna), and self-transcendence and ecstasy (Samādhi) (Feuerstein [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR62 ''2003''], p. 41). Most of the Sādhakas start with physical postures (Āsana) and breathing exercises (Prāṇāyāma) in the present times. Different versions and the schools of Yoga popular at present are different in terms of their emphasis on different limbs and slight difference in methods of practices of different limbs of Aṣṭāṃga yoga. These have become one of the top 10 complementary approaches to health in the USA according to the National Institutes of Health along with usage of natural products, deep breathing, chiropractic, etc.

''Pataṃjali''’s Aṣṭāṃga yoga is the eight distinct and connected groups of practices aimed toward the regulation of mind and its afflictions and attaining Samādhi. In his ''Yoga-sūtra'' (Treatise on Yoga), these groups of practices are called the eight limbs and include social and personal observances (Yama and Niyama), physical postures (Āsana), regulation of vitality through breath (Prāṇāyāma), withdrawal of senses from external world (Pratyāhāra,), concentration (Dhāraṇā, effortful, focused attention), meditation (Dhyāna), and self-transcendence and ecstasy (Samādhi)<ref name=":8" />. Most of the Sādhakas start with physical postures (Āsana) and breathing exercises (Prāṇāyāma) in the present times. Different versions and the schools of Yoga popular at present are different in terms of their emphasis on different limbs and slight difference in methods of practices of different limbs of Aṣṭāṃga yoga. These have become one of the top 10 complementary approaches to health in the USA according to the National Institutes of Health along with usage of natural products, deep breathing, chiropractic, etc<ref name=":0" />.

== Paths of Yoga: Four Distinct Ways and Their Ideals ==

== Paths of Yoga: Four Distinct Ways and Their Ideals ==

The aim of four paths of Yoga is the search for sacred. Pargament ( [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR41 ''2008''], p. 66) explicate the term search for sacred as attempts of or identification, articulation, maintain, or transformation of the divine being or divine object, Ultimate Reality, or Ultimate Truth as perceived by the individual. The domain of the sacred includes what monotheistic religions call God, Hindus call Brahman, and Buddhist Nirvana (p. 33). Since the time of the ancient Upaniṣadas, Brahman is viewed as the ultimate reality and is equated with the ''Ātman'' or the Self.

The aim of four paths of Yoga is the search for sacred. Pargament(2008)<ref>Pargament KI (2008) The sacred character of community life. Am J Community Psychol 41(1–2):22–34 </ref>  explicate the term search for sacred as attempts of or identification, articulation, maintain, or transformation of the divine being or divine object, Ultimate Reality, or Ultimate Truth as perceived by the individual. The domain of the sacred includes what monotheistic religions call God, Hindus call Brahman, and Buddhist Nirvana. Since the time of the ancient Upaniṣadas, Brahman is viewed as the ultimate reality and is equated with the ''Ātman'' or the Self.

Most of the traditions of Yoga acknowledge what the seer of ''Māṅḍūkya Upaniṣada'' suggested that the Self is revealed in the experience of content-less pure consciousness which was called the Fourth State after the three common ones, namely wakeful, dream, and deep sleep. Hindu spirituality is the saga of discovery and description of various spiritual paths to attain such a state. Each individual is distinct by her aptitude, disposition, attitude, intellectual capabilities, etc. Paths of yoga appreciate these differences and offer solution suitable for spiritual endeavor. People who have intellectual capabilities and critical thinking ability are best suited to adopt ''jñāna mārga''. It emphasizes on developing the intellectual understanding of Brahman. People who are more emotional in nature take up the path of devotion. Bhakti yoga is about creating an intimate relationship with the Divine. It requires purification of one’s mind and nurturing of love and affection for Supreme. Action-driven people get inclined to the path of action, i.e., Karma Yoga. It allows aspirants to attain spiritual ideal through performing one’s actions skillfully. ''Aṣṭāṃga Yoga'' encompasses all three aspects of trilogy to ultimately reach to the cessation of mental afflictions to experience the “pure consciousness” or the fourth state mentioned above. [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#Fn14 ¹⁴]

Most of the traditions of Yoga acknowledge what the seer of ''Māṅḍūkya Upaniṣada'' suggested that the Self is revealed in the experience of content-less pure consciousness which was called the Fourth State after the three common ones, namely wakeful, dream, and deep sleep. Hindu spirituality is the saga of discovery and description of various spiritual paths to attain such a state. Each individual is distinct by her aptitude, disposition, attitude, intellectual capabilities, etc. Paths of yoga appreciate these differences and offer solution suitable for spiritual endeavor. People who have intellectual capabilities and critical thinking ability are best suited to adopt ''jñāna mārga''. It emphasizes on developing the intellectual understanding of Brahman. People who are more emotional in nature take up the path of devotion. Bhakti yoga is about creating an intimate relationship with the Divine. It requires purification of one’s mind and nurturing of love and affection for Supreme. Action-driven people get inclined to the path of action, i.e., Karma Yoga. It allows aspirants to attain spiritual ideal through performing one’s actions skillfully. ''Aṣṭāṃga Yoga'' encompasses all three aspects of trilogy to ultimately reach to the cessation of mental afflictions to experience the “pure consciousness” or the fourth state mentioned above.

Each path of Yoga brings about its own distinct mechanism. The ultimate destination of these discrete mechanisms is same, i.e., spiritual freedom. However, it would not be possible to segregate them into water tight compartments. There would always exist a combination of two or more paths when person is pursuing ''Sādhanā''. One path of Yoga may be the principle one, but other paths of Yoga would also accompany it. It depends on the psyche and inclination of the aspirant. [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#Fn15 ¹⁵]

Each path of Yoga brings about its own distinct mechanism. The ultimate destination of these discrete mechanisms is same, i.e., spiritual freedom. However, it would not be possible to segregate them into water tight compartments. There would always exist a combination of two or more paths when person is pursuing ''Sādhanā''. One path of Yoga may be the principle one, but other paths of Yoga would also accompany it. It depends on the psyche and inclination of the aspirant. In Hindu society and culture, there is the distinct institutional category of the “''sampradāyas''”, which involve lineages of spiritual teachers and disciples. There are numerous ''sampradāyas'' with a large following and with histories that extend across centuries. Some of them, such as the Nātha ''Sampradāya'', are specialized in Pataṃjali’s ''Dhyāna yoga''. Others, like the Vārkarī ''Sampradāya,'' primarily involve the practice of ''Bhakti yoga''.

==References==

==References==