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==== Deva-yajña ====

==== Deva-yajña ====

The first sacred obligation is called ''Deva-ṛṇa'' which denotes to what human beings owe to the Gods (devas), who control nature and its various phenomena. As all creation is nonseparate from ''Īśvara'', the ''pancha-mahābhūta'', the five great elements that comprise all creation, are worshiped as ''Īśvara''. In the Vedic vision, ''Īśvara'' is both the intelligent and material cause of creation. ''Deva-yajña'' is an acknowledgment of the manifestation of Īśvara in the form of all creation and expressing our gratitude for all that is given to us. Offerings to the Gods ( ''Deva-yajña'') are made through spiritual ceremonies ( ''Yajña'') and prayers ( ''Prārthanā'') to express one’s gratitude for the great gifts of nature such as water, light, and air .

The first sacred obligation is called ''Deva-ṛṇa'' which denotes to what human beings owe to the Gods (devas), who control nature and its various phenomena. As all creation is nonseparate from ''Īśvara'', the ''pancha-mahābhūta'', the five great elements that comprise all creation, are worshiped as ''Īśvara''. In the Vedic vision, ''Īśvara'' is both the intelligent and material cause of creation. ''Deva-yajña'' is an acknowledgment of the manifestation of Īśvara in the form of all creation and expressing our gratitude for all that is given to us. Offerings to the Gods (''Deva-yajña'') are made through spiritual ceremonies (''Yajña'') and prayers (''Prārthanā'') to express one’s gratitude for the great gifts of nature such as water, light, and air .

==== Pitṛ-yajña ====

==== Pitṛ-yajña ====

==== Brahma-yajña ====

==== Brahma-yajña ====

''Brahma-yajña'' is men’s reverential contribution to preserve wisdom tradition and different streams of knowledge by the worship of the scriptures, obligation to the sages who have spoken and codified spiritual knowledge, the scholars who interpret that for us, and to the teachers who teach or train us in different fields of knowledge and spirituality. This ''Yajña'' also encompasses disseminating the acquired knowledge and skills, both in the realm of matter and spirit, to as many people as possible .

''Brahma-yajña'' is men’s reverential contribution to preserve wisdom tradition and different streams of knowledge by the worship of the scriptures, obligation to the sages who have spoken and codified spiritual knowledge, the scholars who interpret that for us, and to the teachers who teach or train us in different fields of knowledge and spirituality. This ''Yajña'' also encompasses disseminating the acquired knowledge and skills, both in the realm of matter and spirit, to as many people as possible.

==== Manuṣya-yajña ====

==== Manuṣya-yajña ====

== Four Paths of Yoga ==

== Four Paths of Yoga ==

As mentioned in the introduction'', Bhagavad-Gītā'' the most revered and popular text of Hindu traditional wisdom recognizes well over a dozen forms of yoga. Chiefly, Yoga includes paths oriented to intellectual discernment, devotion, service, and Samādhi, and each offers practices to mitigate suffering and aims at total personal transformation or attaining higher levels of consciousness<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" />. Vivekanand, the sage of modern India who first popularized the Hindu perspective of spirituality to the Western world in modern times, also gives fourfold classification which leads to unity of the self and the Self.

As mentioned in the introduction'', Bhagavad-Gītā'' the most revered and popular text of Hindu traditional wisdom recognizes well over a dozen forms of yoga. Chiefly, Yoga includes paths oriented to intellectual discernment, devotion, service, and Samādhi, and each offers practices to mitigate suffering and aims at total personal transformation or attaining higher levels of consciousness<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" />. Swami Vivekananda, the sage of modern India who first popularized the Hindu perspective of spirituality to the Western world in modern times, also gives fourfold classification which leads to unity of the self and the Self.

The scheme of ''[[Five Koshas (पञ्च कोष)|panca kosa]]'' (or five sheaths) conceptualizes a person as an individual who thinks, feels, and acts. This model of personhood is important in understanding the major paths of spiritual pursuit or paths of Yoga in the Hindu tradition since the three major forms of yoga are based primarily on the processes of thinking, feeling, and volition. ''Jñāna Yoga'' denotes the path of knowledge, ''Bhakti Yoga'' denotes the path of devotion, and ''Karma Yoga'' denotes the path of action. In the next section, we first present these pathways to spiritual development emphasizing cognitive processes, emotion, and volition followed by a similar account of Ashtang Yoga (also known as Pataṃjali’s Yoga), which focuses on controlling the mind as a composite of all these processes taken together.

The scheme of ''[[Five Koshas (पञ्च कोष)|panca kosa]]'' (or five sheaths) conceptualizes a person as an individual who thinks, feels, and acts. This model of personhood is important in understanding the major paths of spiritual pursuit or paths of Yoga in the Hindu tradition since the three major forms of yoga are based primarily on the processes of thinking, feeling, and volition. ''Jñāna Yoga'' denotes the path of knowledge, ''Bhakti Yoga'' denotes the path of devotion, and ''Karma Yoga'' denotes the path of action. In the next section, we first present these pathways to spiritual development emphasizing cognitive processes, emotion, and volition followed by a similar account of Ashtanga Yoga (also known as Pataṃjali’s Yoga), which focuses on controlling the mind as a composite of all these processes taken together.

=== Jñāna Yoga: The Path of Knowledge ===

=== Jñāna Yoga: The Path of Knowledge ===

The term ''jñāna'' denotes knowledge. This path of Yoga is about acquiring right knowledge of the ultimate truth, i.e., ''brahman'' (Radhakrishnan [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR47 ''2015'']). In Indian traditional wisdom, the notion of ''Brahman'' is not different than the true self ''Ātman''. It is not an alien to the self; perhaps, it is the true self. Various ''Upaniṣadas'' uphold that the seat of Brahman is the core of the true self. ''Śvetāśvetaropaniṣada'', one of the principal ''Upaniṣada'', considers human beings as children of immortal bliss. [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#Fn10 ¹⁰] The never-changing, imperishable ''Brahman'' residing in the self is enveloped by layers of ignorance. ''Jñāna Yoga'' is a process to gain the right knowledge of “who am I” and sustaining the stage of being into oneness with the Self.

The term ''jñāna'' denotes knowledge. This path of Yoga is about acquiring right knowledge of the ultimate truth, i.e., ''brahman''<ref>Radhakrishnan S (2015) The philosophy of Hinduism. Niyogi Offsets, New Delhi</ref>. In Indian traditional wisdom, the notion of ''Brahman'' is not different than the true self ''Ātman''. It is not an alien to the self; perhaps, it is the true self. Various ''Upaniṣadas'' uphold that the seat of Brahman is the core of the true self. ''Śvetāśvetaropaniṣada'', one of the principal ''Upaniṣada'', considers human beings as children of immortal bliss:<blockquote>''śṛṇvantu biśve amṛtasya putrā'' | ''ā ye dhāmāni dibyāni tasthuḥ'' || ( ''Śvetāśvetaropaniṣada'', 2.5)</blockquote><blockquote>Translation: May all the sons of the Immmortal listen, even those who have reached their heavenly abodes<ref>(Radhkrishnan [[:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR46|''1953'']], 2016, p. 720).</ref>.</blockquote>The never-changing, imperishable ''Brahman'' residing in the self is enveloped by layers of ignorance. ''Jñāna Yoga'' is a process to gain the right knowledge of “who am I” and sustaining the stage of being into oneness with the Self.

''Jñāna Yoga'' requires aspirants to ask themselves one simple question “who am I?” The answers to this question may make a long list including name, physical body, social roles, relations with other people, thoughts, attitudes, values, etc. The next stage is the critical examination of these answers. Sri Aurobindo ( [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR3 ''1992'']) suggests ''dhyāna'' to gain the knowledge of true self. ''Dhyāna'' includes the idea of meditation as well as contemplation. The first step in ''dhyāna'' is the concentration of the will against the obstacles of meditation (e.g., wandering of mind, sleep, impatience, etc.). The second step is increasing purity and calm of the inner consciousness ( ''citta'') from where thoughts and emotions arise. Achieving freedom from all disturbing reactions is necessary. The regular and disciplined practice of dhyāna helps practitioners to attain self-realization.

''Jñāna Yoga'' requires aspirants to ask themselves one simple question “who am I?” The answers to this question may make a long list including name, physical body, social roles, relations with other people, thoughts, attitudes, values, etc. The next stage is the critical examination of these answers. Sri Aurobindo<ref>Aurobindo S (1992) Growing within: the psychology of inner development. Sri Aurobindo Ashram Trust, Pondicherry</ref> suggests ''dhyāna'' to gain the knowledge of true self. ''Dhyāna'' includes the idea of meditation as well as contemplation. The first step in ''dhyāna'' is the concentration of the will against the obstacles of meditation (e.g., wandering of mind, sleep, impatience, etc.). The second step is increasing purity and calm of the inner consciousness (''citta'') from where thoughts and emotions arise. Achieving freedom from all disturbing reactions is necessary. The regular and disciplined practice of dhyāna helps practitioners to attain self-realization.

The insistence of this path is on intellect and its sharpness. The answer of question “who am I?” helps an individual to find out true self and attain self-realization .

The insistence of this path is on intellect and its sharpness. The answer of question “who am I?” helps an individual to find out true self and attain self-realization .

=== Bhakti Yoga: The Path of Devotion ===

=== Bhakti Yoga: The Path of Devotion ===

The word Bhakti is derived from Sanskrit root ''bhaj'' which means to serve (Radhakrishnan [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR45 ''1948''], 2009, p. 60).

The word Bhakti is derived from Sanskrit root ''bhaj'' which means to serve. The true nature of Brahman is beyond the purview of senses and human cognition. It is attribute-less (''nirguna'') and form-less (''nirakara''). Thus, name, form, character, and qualities are attributed to the Supreme and such deity is worshiped. Hindu culture gives freedom to the individual to choose his or her own name and the form of the God. It is termed as ''iṣṭadevatā''. Thus, one can find numerous forms of deities being worshipped by people in Hindu culture, making it pluralist. Bhakti is a profound experience which culminates all desires and fills the heart of the ''bhakt'' with love for God<ref name=":1" />.

The true nature of Brahman is beyond the purview of senses and human cognition. It is attribute-less ( ''nirguna'') and form-less ( ''nirakara''). Thus, name, form, character, and qualities are attributed to the Supreme and such deity is worshipped. Hindu culture gives freedom to the individual to choose his or her own name and the form of the God. It is termed as ''iṣṭadevatā''. Thus, one can find numerous forms of deities being worshipped by people in Hindu culture, making it pluralist. Bhakti is a profound experience which culminates all desires and fills the heart of the ''bhakt'' [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#Fn11 ¹¹] with love for God (Radhakrishnan [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR45 ''1948'']).

Bhakti Yoga is a search after the Lord, a search beginning, continuing, and ending in love<ref>Vivekananda S (2015) Bhakti yoga: the yoga of love and devotion, 37th edn. Advaita Ashrama, Kolkata</ref>. ''Bhāgavatam'' delineates various ways of self-devotion. Some of them are chanting songs of the divine, remembering and repeating God’s name (''nāmasmaraṇa''), touching and saluting the feet of the God, offering flowers, food (''naivedyaṃ''), developing love with the Supreme, etc. The fundamental principle in Bhakti Yoga is complete faith (''śraddhā'') and unconditional love for the God<ref name=":0" />.

Bhakti yoga is a discipline which can be practiced as an individual and through an institution. The tradition of devotees is prevalent since centuries and spread across the Indian terrain. Sant Basaveśvara (1105–1167), Sant Jñāneśvara (1272–1293), Sūradāsa (sixteenth century), Tulasīdāsa (1532–1624), Mīrābāī (1547–1614), and Sāībābā (1835–1918) are few examples of rich bhakti tradition in India. Bhakti discipline is practiced through social institutions or sect. The path of bhakti is recommended for people in general. It does not require any special skills or any qualification. It just demands complete surrender and devotion for the Divine. It emphasizes on the pure feelings of the devotee for her chosen deity ( ''iṣṭadevatā''). Because of its simplistic and easily adoptable nature, numerous bhakti sects have flourished in Hinduism<ref name=":0" />.

 

Bhakti yoga is a discipline which can be practiced as an individual and through an institution. The tradition of devotees is prevalent since centuries and spread across the Indian terrain. Sant Basaveśvara (1105–1167), Sant Jñāneśvara (1272–1293), Sūradāsa (sixteenth century), Tulasīdāsa (1532–1624), Mīrābāī (1547–1614), and Sāībābā (1835–1918) are few examples of rich bhakti tradition in India. Bhakti discipline is practiced through social institutions or sect.

 

The path of bhakti is recommended for people in general. It does not require any special skills or any qualification. It just demands complete surrender and devotion for the Divine. It emphasizes on the pure feelings of the devotee for her chosen deity ( ''iṣṭadevatā''). Because of its simplistic and easily adoptable nature, numerous bhakti sects have flourished in Hinduism .

=== Karma Yoga: The Path of Action ===

=== Karma Yoga: The Path of Action ===

Karma Yoga is a path of spiritual liberation by shifting the frame of reference of the day-to-day actions from self-centric behavior to Dharma-centric behavior.

Karma Yoga is a path of spiritual liberation by shifting the frame of reference of the day-to-day actions from self-centric behavior to Dharma-centric behavior.

When any action is being performed, the sense of doership ( ''phalāśā'') and attachment to a particular favorable outcome is created in the mind of doer (Tilak [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR55 ''1915'']). Due to this bias, doer concentrates on an outcome and ignores the action (Radhakrishnan [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR45 ''1948'']). Renunciation ( ''tyāga'') of the attachment to outcome like external reward or incentive allows an individual to remain anchored in the present action. As a result, person becomes more process-oriented than outcome-oriented (Bhave [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR6 ''1946'']). Being centered on the duty-bound action naturally results in withdrawal from external reward of the action, which referred as “ ''Phalāśā Tyāga''” is the central tenet of Karma Yoga.

When any action is being performed, the sense of doership (''phalāśā'') and attachment to a particular favorable outcome is created in the mind of doer<ref name=":6">Tilak BG (1915) Shrimad Bhagavad Gita Rahasya, 26th edn. Tilak Brothers, Pune</ref>. Due to this bias, doer concentrates on an outcome and ignores the action<ref name=":1" />. Renunciation (''tyāga'') of the attachment to outcome like external reward or incentive allows an individual to remain anchored in the present action. As a result, person becomes more process-oriented than outcome-oriented<ref>Bhave V (1946) Sthitaprajña Darśana, 12th edn. Parmdham Publications, Vardha</ref>. Being centered on the duty-bound action naturally results in withdrawal from external reward of the action, which referred as “ ''Phalāśā Tyāga''” is the central tenet of Karma Yoga.

Svadharma and Loksangrah are the two principle components of Karma Yoga (Pandey et al. [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR38 ''2009'']). The Dharma of an individual self ( ''sva'') is termed as ''Svadharma''. It is constituted by two factors – profession of a person and phase of life (e.g., student, householder, retired person, etc.) (Bhawuk [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR7 ''2011'']). When a person chooses an action according to her chosen profession and phase of life, the person can be said as following “ ''Svadharma.''”

Svadharma and Loksangrah are the two principle components of Karma Yoga<ref name=":7">Pandey A, Gupta RK, Arora AP (2009) Spiritual climate of business organizations and its impact on customers’ experience. J Bus Ethics 88(2):313–332.</ref>. The Dharma of an individual self (''sva'') is termed as ''Svadharma''. It is constituted by two factors – profession of a person and phase of life (e.g., student, householder, retired person, etc.)<ref>Bhawuk DPS (2011) Spirituality and Indian psychology. Springer, New York.</ref>. When a person chooses an action according to her chosen profession and phase of life, the person can be said as following “ ''Svadharma.''”

Following one’s ''svadharma'', a person starts appreciating the interconnectedness and interdependence among the self and the universal system. Subsequently, individual actions become more responsible and get directed toward maintenance of this system (Radhakrishnan [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR45 ''1948'']). Gradually, the frame of reference behind the action becomes universe-centric. When individual develops the sense of interconnectedness and interdependence between self and nature, and performs actions with the purpose of contributing to larger social and natural environment, it is referred as “ ''Lokasaṃgraha.''” [:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#Fn12 ¹²]

Following one’s ''svadharma'', a person starts appreciating the interconnectedness and interdependence among the self and the universal system. Subsequently, individual actions become more responsible and get directed toward maintenance of this system<ref name=":1" />. Gradually, the frame of reference behind the action becomes universe-centric. When individual develops the sense of interconnectedness and interdependence between self and nature, and performs actions with the purpose of contributing to larger social and natural environment, it is referred as “''Lokasaṃgraha.''” ''Loka'' means society (people) and cosmic system (nature). ''Saṃgraha'' means to gather, protect, nourish, regulate, etc<ref name=":6" />. ''Lokasaṃgraha'' means binding people together, protecting them to achieve the welfare of the society and leading them on the path of self-realization. The notion of ''Lokasaṃgraha'' involves well-being of all people<ref>Chakraborty SK (2006) The “Nishkam karma” principle: its relevance to effectiveness and ethics. Management 18:115</ref>, welfare of society as whole and humanity <ref>Sharma S (1999) Corporate Gita: lessons for management, administration and leadership. J Hum Values 5(2):103–123 </ref><ref>Sebastian CD (2003) The essential teachings of Bhagavad Gita. Jnanatirtha Int J Sacred Scriptures 3(2):193–203</ref>, concern for social and natural environment<ref name=":7" /> (Pandey et al. [[:File:///C:/Users/adiag/Downloads/manuscript (1).docx#CR38|''2009'']]), unity of the world<ref name=":1" /> and interconnectedness of the society<ref>Pandey A, Gupta RK, Kumar P (2016) Spiritual climate and its impact on learning in teams in business organizations. Glob Bus Rev 17(3S).</ref> <ref>Pardasani R, Sharma RR, Bindlish P (2014) Facilitating workplace spirituality: lessons from Indian spiritual traditions. J Manag Dev 33(8/9):847–859.</ref>

=== Aṣṭāṃga Yoga: The Most Popular Form of Yoga ===

=== Aṣṭāṃga Yoga: The Most Popular Form of Yoga ===