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Line 172: − − The alphabet is designed such that the difference between sounds is preserved whether you recite it horizontally or vertically. It was extended and completed with [[fricative]]s and [[sibilant]]s, [[semi-vowel]]s, and [[vowel]]s, and was eventually codified into the [[Brahmi alphabet]], which is one of the most systematic sound-to-writing mappings. Scholar Frits Staal has commented, "Like Mendelejev’s Periodic System of Elements, the varga system was the result of centuries of analysis. In the course of that development the basic concepts of phonology were discovered and defined.<ref>Frits Staal, ''The science of language'', Chapter 16 in [[Gavin Flood]], The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism [[Blackwell Publishing]], 2003, 599 pages ISBN 0-631-21535-2, p. 352.</ref> − + Line 211:
Line 215: − ===Articulation===+ − Generally, in [[articulatory phonetics]], the [[place of articulation]] (or ''point of articulation'') of a consonant is the point of contact, where an obstruction occurs in the vocal tract between an active (moving) articulator (typically some part of the tongue) and a passive (stationary) articulator (typically some part of the roof of the mouth).{{cn|date=March 2016}} − − But according to Indian linguistic tradition,<ref>"Siddhanta Kaumudi" by Bhattoji Diksita and "Laghu Siddhanta Kaumudi", by Varadaraja.</ref> there are five ''passive'' places of articulation: − : '''{{IAST|Kaṇṭhya}}''': [[Velar consonant|Velar]] − : '''Tālavya''': [[Palatal consonant|Palatal]] − : '''Mūrdhanya''': [[Retroflex consonant|Retroflex]] − : '''Dantya ''': [[Dental consonant|Dental]] − : '''Ōṣṭhya ''': [[Labial consonant|Labial]] − − Apart from that, other articulations are combinations of the above five places:{{cn|date=March 2016}} − : '''Dant'oṣṭhya''': [[Labio-dental]] (E.g.: v) − : '''Kantatālavya''': e.g.: [[Diphthong]] e − : '''Kaṇṭōṣṭhya''': labial-velar (E.g.: Diphthong o) − − There are three ''active'' places of articulation: − : '''Jihvāmūla''': [[dorsal consonant|tongue root]], for [[velar]] − : '''Jihvāmadhya''': [[laminal|tongue body]], for [[palatal]] − : '''Jihvāgra''': [[Apical consonant|tip of tongue]], for [[Retroflex consonant|cerebral]] and [[Dental consonant|dental]] − : '''{{IAST|Adhōṣṭha}}''': [[lower lip]], for [[Labial consonant|labial]] Line 242:
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'''Shiksha''' (Samskrit: शिक्षा) means "instruction, lesson, learning, study of skill". Shiksha is a knowledge of pronunciation and accent, insufficiently expressed as phonetics.<ref>All About Hinduism, Swami Sivananda, Page 34</ref> In this context it refers to one of the six [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]], or limbs of Vedic studies, others being [[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyākaraṇam]] (Grammar), Chandas (Prosody), Niruktam (Semantics and Thesaurus), [[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotiṣam]] (Astrology) and [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]] (Practice of Rites). It has an important place in the Vidyasthanas and hence study of this shastra is a prerequisite for Vyakarana.
'''Shiksha''' (Samskrit: शिक्षा) means "instruction, lesson, learning, study of skill". Shiksha is a knowledge of pronunciation and accent, insufficiently expressed as phonetics.<ref>All About Hinduism, Swami Sivananda, Page 34</ref> In this context it refers to one of the six [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Vedangas]], or limbs of Vedic studies, the others being [[Vyakarana Vedanga (व्याकरणवेदाङ्गम्)|Vyākaraṇam]] (Grammar), Chandas (Prosody), Niruktam (Semantics and Thesaurus), [[Vedanga Jyotisha (वेदाङ्गज्योतिषम्)|Jyotiṣam]] (Astrology) and [[Kalpa Vedanga (कल्पवेदाङ्गम्)|Kalpa]] (Practice of Rites). It has an important place in the Vidyasthanas and hence study of this shastra is a prerequisite for Vyakarana.
[[File:Shiksha.png|thumb|600x600px|'''Articulation of Sounds from Throat, Nose and Mouth''' Courtesy: Book "Sarwang" Published by Adivasi Lok Kala Evam Boli Vikas Academy, Madhya Pradesh Sanskriti Parishad]]
[[File:Shiksha.png|thumb|600x600px|'''Articulation of Sounds from Throat, Nose and Mouth''' Courtesy: Book "Sarwang" Published by Adivasi Lok Kala Evam Boli Vikas Academy, Madhya Pradesh Sanskriti Parishad]]
== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
== परिचयः ॥ Introduction ==
Shiksha is considered as the nose (घ्राणम् - ghrāṇam) of Vedapuruṣa (knowledge personified). Unlike other later day languages, pronunciation is of utmost importance in Samskrit. Different speech organs, places for different letters, the efforts, the accents, quantity, pitch, stress, melody, process of how letters are produced, the virtues and vices of pronunciation, the problem with mispronunciation etc. are discussed in this Vedanga.
Shiksha is considered as the nose (घ्राणम् - ghrāṇam) of Vedapuruṣa (knowledge personified) as described in Mundakopanishad (1.1.15). Unlike other later day languages, pronunciation is of utmost importance in Samskrit. Different speech organs, places for different letters, the efforts, the accents, quantity, pitch, stress, melody, process of how letters are produced, the virtues and vices of pronunciation, the problem with mispronunciation etc. are discussed in this science of pronunciation dealt with, in the [[Shad Vedangas (षड्वेदाङ्गानि)|Shad Vedangas]].
Each ancient vaidika parampara which sustained over ages must have developed pronunciation and the earliest surviving texts which deal with some aspects of pronunciation are the Pratishakyas. The Paniniya-Shiksha and ''Naradiya-Siksa'' are examples of extant ancient manuscripts of this field of Vedic studies. One should learn Shiksha principles before studying the Vyakarana.
Each ancient vaidika parampara survived through millenia as they developed pronunciation and the testimony to this is are the surviving texts are the Pratishakyas. The Paniniya-Shiksha and Naradiya-Shiksha are examples of extant ancient manuscripts of this field of Vedic studies. One should learn Shiksha principles before studying the Vyakarana.
The ancient Vedic schools developed major treatises analyzing sound, vowels and consonants, rules of combination and pronunciation to assist clear understanding, to avoid mistakes and for resonance (pleasing to the listener). These texts include Samhita-pathas and Pada-pathas, and partially or fully surviving manuscripts include Paniniya Shiksha, Naradiya Shiksha, Bharadvaja Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha, Vasishthi Shiksha, Parashari Shiksha, Katyayani Shiksha and Manduki Shiksha.
The ancient Vedic schools developed major treatises analyzing sound, vowels and consonants, rules of combination and pronunciation to assist clear understanding, to avoid mistakes and for resonance (pleasing to the listener). These texts include Samhita-pathas and Pada-pathas, and partially or fully surviving manuscripts include Paniniya Shiksha, Naradiya Shiksha, Bharadvaja Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha, Vasishthi Shiksha, Parashari Shiksha, Katyayani Shiksha and Manduki Shiksha.
nāsikā
nāsikā
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<blockquote>हकारं पञ्चमैर्युक्तम् अन्तस्थाभिश्च संयुतम् । औरस्यं तं विजानीयात् कण्ठ्यमाहुरसंयुतम् ॥ पाणिनीयशिक्षा, १६ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>hakāraṃ pañcamairyuktam antasthābhiśca saṃyutam । aurasyaṃ taṃ vijānīyāt kaṇṭhyamāhurasaṃyutam ॥ (Pani. Shik. 16)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>
<blockquote>हकारं पञ्चमैर्युक्तम् अन्तस्थाभिश्च संयुतम् । औरस्यं तं विजानीयात् कण्ठ्यमाहुरसंयुतम् ॥ पाणिनीयशिक्षा, १६ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>hakāraṃ pañcamairyuktam antasthābhiśca saṃyutam । aurasyaṃ taṃ vijānīyāt kaṇṭhyamāhurasaṃyutam ॥ (Pani. Shik. 16)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>The combinations of ह-'ha' and ङ-ṅa / ञ-ña / ण-ṇa / न-na / म-ma / य-ya / र-ra / ल-la / व-va, i.e. ह्ङ-hṅa, ह्ञ-hña, ह्ण-hṇa, ह्न-hna, ह्म-hma, ह्य-hya, ह्र-hra, ह्ल-hla and ह्व-hva, are to be pronounced from the chest. The lone 'ह-ha' is born in the throat. The combination of ha + ṅa and ha + ña (ह्ङ-hṅa and ह्ञ-hña) is not present in word usages. In words like aparāhṇa (अपराह्णः), madhyāhna (मद्याह्नः), brahma (ब्रह्मा), bāhya (बाह्या), hrada (ह्रद), prahlāda (प्रह्लादः) and āhvāna (आह्वानम्), 'ha' is to be pronounced carefully, i.e. it should come from the chest.
==== वृत्तिः॥ Vṛtti ====
Nāradīyaśikṣā prescribes three vṛttis (procedures) called druta (द्रुता । quick), madhyama (मध्यमा । medium) and vilambita (विलम्बितम् । slow) that are useful in articulation of speech: <blockquote>अभ्यासार्थं द्रुतां वृत्तिं प्रयोगार्थे तु मध्यमाम् । शिष्याणामुपदेशार्थे कुर्याद्वृत्तिं विलम्बितम् ॥ २१ ॥ (Nara. Shik. 21)</blockquote><blockquote>abhyāsārthaṃ drutāṃ vṛttiṃ prayogārthe tu madhyamām । śiṣyāṇāmupadeśārthe kuryādvṛttiṃ vilambitam ॥ 21 ॥</blockquote>For practicing or recitation Drutavṛtti, for conversation Madhyama, and for teaching students vilambita vrtti are to be employed. In drutavṛtti, nine drops flow out of suṣumnā nāḍī, in madhyamā, twelve drops and in vilambita, sixteen drops are said to flow out of suṣumnā nāḍī.
== स्वरतोऽपराधम् ॥ Effects of Bad Pronunciation ==
Pāṇinīyaśikṣā cautions against any mispronunciation in terms of accent or letter and asserts that such a usage would boomerang:<blockquote>मन्त्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह । स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ॥ ५२ ॥</blockquote><blockquote>mantro hīnaḥ svarato varṇato vā mithyāprayukto na tamarthamāha । sa vāgvajro yajamānaṃ hinasti yathendraśatruḥ svarato'parādhāt ॥ 52 ॥</blockquote>A mantra that is defective in terms of accent or letter would not be useful as it does not convey the intended meaning. Moreover it will become a weapon as good as the diamond-weapon of Indra, and boomerangs against the doer. This is what happened when the mantra 'indraśatruḥ vardhasva' was employed with a different accent.
==Pratishakhyas==
==Pratishakhyas==
| pa || pha || ba || bha || ma
| pa || pha || ba || bha || ma
|}
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The Varga system and the Pratishakshyas, contributions of the Shiksha texts, are elaborate systems which deal with the generation and classification of sound.
The Varga system and the Pratishakshyas, contributions of the Shiksha texts, are elaborate systems which deal with the generation and classification of sound.
===Other Shiksha texts===
==Shiksha texts==
In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. The following list contains some of these surviving texts: Amoghanandini Shiksha, Apisali Shiksha (in sutra form), Aranya Shiksha, Atreya Shiksha, Avasananirnyaya Shiksha, Bharadvaja Shiksha, Chandra Shiksha of Chandragomin (sutra form), Charayaniya Shiksha, Galadrka Shiksha, Kalanirnya Shiksha, Katyayani Shiksha, Kaundinya Shiksha, Keshavi Shiksha, Kramakarika Shiksha, Kramasandhaana Shiksha, Laghumoghanandini Shiksha, Lakshmikanta Shiksha, Lomashi Shiksha, Madhyandina Shiksha, Mandavya Shiksha, Mallasharmakrta Shiksha, Manasvaara Shiksha, Manduki Shiksha, Naradiya Shiksha, Paniniya Shiksha (versified), Paniniya Shiksha (in sutra form), Paniniya Shiksha (with accents), Parashari Shiksha, Padyaatmika Keshavi Shiksha, Pari Shiksha, Pratishakhyapradipa Shiksha, Sarvasammata Shiksha, Shaishiriya Shiksha, Shamaana Shiksha, Shambhu Shiksha, Shodashashloki Shiksha, Shikshasamgraha, Siddhanta Shiksha, Svaraankusha Shiksha, Svarashtaka Shiksha, Svaravyanjana Shiksha, Vasishtha Shiksha, Varnaratnapradipa Shiksha, Vyaali Shiksha, Vyasa Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha.
In addition, several Shiksha texts exist, most of them in metrical verse form but a few in sutra form. The following list contains some of these surviving texts: Amoghanandini Shiksha, Apisali Shiksha (in sutra form), Aranya Shiksha, Atreya Shiksha, Avasananirnyaya Shiksha, Bharadvaja Shiksha, Chandra Shiksha of Chandragomin (sutra form), Charayaniya Shiksha, Galadrka Shiksha, Kalanirnya Shiksha, Katyayani Shiksha, Kaundinya Shiksha, Keshavi Shiksha, Kramakarika Shiksha, Kramasandhaana Shiksha, Laghumoghanandini Shiksha, Lakshmikanta Shiksha, Lomashi Shiksha, Madhyandina Shiksha, Mandavya Shiksha, Mallasharmakrta Shiksha, Manasvaara Shiksha, Manduki Shiksha, Naradiya Shiksha, Paniniya Shiksha (versified), Paniniya Shiksha (in sutra form), Paniniya Shiksha (with accents), Parashari Shiksha, Padyaatmika Keshavi Shiksha, Pari Shiksha, Pratishakhyapradipa Shiksha, Sarvasammata Shiksha, Shaishiriya Shiksha, Shamaana Shiksha, Shambhu Shiksha, Shodashashloki Shiksha, Shikshasamgraha, Siddhanta Shiksha, Svaraankusha Shiksha, Svarashtaka Shiksha, Svaravyanjana Shiksha, Vasishtha Shiksha, Varnaratnapradipa Shiksha, Vyaali Shiksha, Vyasa Shiksha, Yajnavalkya Shiksha.
: '''Svarita''': descending pitch (usually follows high pitch)
: '''Svarita''': descending pitch (usually follows high pitch)
:
Effort (or [[Manner of articulation|manner]]) of articulation ('''{{IAST|Uccāraṇa Prayatna}}''') is of two types for consonants,{{cn|date=March 2016}}
Effort (or [[Manner of articulation|manner]]) of articulation ('''{{IAST|Uccāraṇa Prayatna}}''') is of two types for consonants,{{cn|date=March 2016}}
:: '''Śvāsa''': [[Unvoiced]]
:: '''Śvāsa''': [[Unvoiced]]
:: '''Nāda''': [[Voiced]]
:: '''Nāda''': [[Voiced]]
::
== Effects of Bad Pronunciation ==
Pāṇinīyaśikṣā cautions against any mispronunciation in terms of accent or letter and asserts that such a usage would boomerang:<blockquote>मन्त्रो हीनः स्वरतो वर्णतो वा मिथ्याप्रयुक्तो न तमर्थमाह । स वाग्वज्रो यजमानं हिनस्ति यथेन्द्रशत्रुः स्वरतोऽपराधात् ॥ ५२ </blockquote><blockquote>mantro hīnaḥ svarato varṇato vā mithyāprayukto na tamarthamāha । sa vāgvajro yajamānaṃ hinasti yathendraśatruḥ svarato'parādhāt ॥ 52 ॥</blockquote>
==See also==
==See also==