Changes

The closing period of the Samhitas witness the conception of a single creator and controller of the Universe, variously called Prajapati, Visvakarman, Purusha, Hiranyagarbha, Brahmanaspati and Brahman. But this divine controller was yet only a deity and the quest to know the nature of this deity began in the Upanishads.<ref name=":12" />

The closing period of the Samhitas witness the conception of a single creator and controller of the Universe, variously called Prajapati, Visvakarman, Purusha, Hiranyagarbha, Brahmanaspati and Brahman. But this divine controller was yet only a deity and the quest to know the nature of this deity began in the Upanishads.<ref name=":12" />

The Aranyakas mark the transition from the ritualistic (Karma-kanda) to the philosophic thought (Jnana-kanda). Here a mystic interpretation of the Vedic Yajnas is seen, which represent the prototype of philosophical thought processes.<ref name=":22" /> Aranyakas presented the ideas of symbolic forms of worship (pratika) and Prana (vital breath) was regarded as the most essential function for the life of man. This recognition of the superiority of Prana brought about a focus on the meditations on Prana as Brahman. However, though meditation took the place of yajnas, it was hardly adequate for the highest attainment of Brahman. Sages long accustomed to worship deities of visible manifestation could not easily dispense with the idea of seeking after a positive and definite content of Brahman. Nature of Brahman was unclear, for they had only a dim and dreamy vision of it in the deep craving of their souls which could not be translated into permanent terms. But this spark led them on the quest to understand the Brahman, and they found that by whatever means they tried to give a positive and definite content to the Ultimate Reality, Brahman, they failed. Yajnavalkya Maharshi conceptualized the Neti Neti philosophy and said "He the Atman is not this, nor this. He is inconceivable, unchangeable, untouched." Thus, it may be understood that we cannot describe Brahman by any positive content which is always limited by conceptual thought.  

The [[Aranyaka (आरण्यकम्)|Aranyakas]] mark the transition from the ritualistic (Karma-kanda) to the philosophic thought (Jnana-kanda). Here a mystic interpretation of the Vedic Yajnas is seen, which represent the prototype of philosophical thought processes.<ref name=":22" /> Aranyakas presented the ideas of symbolic forms of worship (pratika) and Prana (vital breath) was regarded as the most essential function for the life of man. This recognition of the superiority of Prana brought about a focus on the meditations on Prana as Brahman. However, though meditation took the place of [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajnas]], it was hardly adequate for the highest attainment of Brahman. Sages long accustomed to worship deities of visible manifestation could not easily dispense with the idea of seeking after a positive and definite content of Brahman. Nature of Brahman was unclear, for they had only a dim and dreamy vision of it in the deep craving of their souls which could not be translated into permanent terms. But this spark led them on the quest to understand the Brahman, and they found that by whatever means they tried to give a positive and definite content to the Ultimate Reality, Brahman, they failed. Yajnavalkya Maharshi conceptualized the Neti Neti philosophy and said "He the Atman is not this, nor this. He is inconceivable, unchangeable, untouched." Thus, it may be understood that we cannot describe Brahman by any positive content which is always limited by conceptual thought.  

The fundamental idea which runs through the early Upanishads is that beneath the exterior world of change there is an unchangeable reality which is identical with that which underlies the essence on man (Brhd. Upan. 4.4.5.22).  The sum and substance of the Upanishad teaching is involved in the equation Atman = Brahman. It may be noted that Atman was used in the Rig Veda to denote both the ultimate essence of the Universe and also the vital breath in man. Upanishads however, use the word Brahman to denote the ultimate essence of the Universe and Atman is reserved to denote the innermost essence in man and Upanishads emphatically declare that the two are one and the same.  

The fundamental idea which runs through the early Upanishads is that beneath the exterior world of change there is an unchangeable reality which is identical with that which underlies the essence on man (Brhd. Upan. 4.4.5.22).  The sum and substance of the Upanishad teaching is involved in the equation Atman = Brahman. It may be noted that Atman was used in the Rig Veda to denote both the ultimate essence of the Universe and also the vital breath in man. Upanishads however, use the word Brahman to denote the ultimate essence of the Universe and Atman is reserved to denote the innermost essence in man and Upanishads emphatically declare that the two are one and the same.  

Upon this foundation of the Upanishads, principal systems of philosophy developed with systematic treatises being written in short pregnant half sentences called Sutras, which did not elaborate the subject, but were intended for those who had direct elaborate oral instructions on the subject.<ref name=":12" />

Upon this foundation of the Upanishads, principal systems of philosophy developed with systematic treatises being written in short pregnant half sentences called Sutras, which did not elaborate the subject, but were intended for those who had direct elaborate oral instructions on the subject.<ref name=":12" />

== Systematization of Darshanas ==

== Systematization of Darshanas ==

It can be seen that the spirit of philosophical enquiry, although had begun in the days of the earliest Upanishads, had continued even in circles other than those of the Upanishads. The Buddha and Jaina activities were also probably happening concurrently as no reference to them is seen in the Upanishads. Thus, it can be said that there were different forms of philosophical inquiry in spheres other than those of the Upanishads, of which we have but scanty records. In the assemblies of the sages and their pupils, the views of the heretical or heterodox thinkers were probably discussed and refuted. So it may have continued until some illustrious member of the assembly such as Gautama or Kanada collected the purport of these discussions on various topics and problems, filled up many of the missing links, classified and arranged these on the form of a system of philosophy and recorded it in '''Sutras (सूत्रम्)'''.<ref name=":12" /> Almost all shastras granthas are written in a certain writing format and the [[Shastra Lekhana Paddhati (शास्त्रलेखनपद्धतिः)|lekhana paddati]] (way of writing) includes one or a few of the following   

It can be seen that the spirit of philosophical enquiry, although had begun in the days of the earliest Upanishads, had continued even in circles other than those of the Upanishads. The Buddha and Jaina activities were also probably happening concurrently as no reference to them is seen in the Upanishads. Thus, it can be said that there were different forms of philosophical inquiry in spheres other than those of the Upanishads, of which we have but scanty records. In the assemblies of the sages and their pupils, the views of the heretical or heterodox thinkers were probably discussed and refuted. So it may have continued until some illustrious member of the assembly such as Gautama or Kanada collected the purport of these discussions on various topics and problems, filled up many of the missing links, classified and arranged these on the form of a system of philosophy and recorded it in '''Sutras (सूत्रम्)'''.<ref name=":12" /> Almost all shastras granthas are written in a certain writing format to enable efficient teaching and memorization. [[Shastra Shikshana Paddhati (शास्त्रशिक्षणपद्धतिः)|Shastra shikshana padhati]] includes one or a few of the following ways of textual structure    

# Sutras (सुत्रम्)   

# Sutras (सुत्रम्)   

# Bhashya (भाष्यम्)   

# Bhashya (भाष्यम्)   

# Vartika (वार्तिकम्)   

# Vartika (वार्तिकम्)   

# Vyakhyana (व्याख्यानम्) or Tika (टीका)   

# Vyakhyana (व्याख्यानम्) or Tika (टीका)   

The object of these treatises, whether Astika or Nastika Darshanas, is three-fold   

The object of these treatises, whether Astika or Nastika Darshanas, is three-fold   

# To consolidate the teaching of the particular school to which they belong.   

# To consolidate the teaching of the particular school to which they belong.   

The names Vatsyayana, Vachaspati and Udayana are indeed very great, but even they contented themselves by writing commentaries on commentaries, and did not try to formulate any original system. The contributions of the successive commentators served to make each system more complete and stronger to enable it to hold its own successfully against the opposition and attacks of the rival schools. Hence no study of the Indian philosophy is adequate without the study of commentaries which had kept it living through the ages of history.<ref name=":12" />

The names Vatsyayana, Vachaspati and Udayana are indeed very great, but even they contented themselves by writing commentaries on commentaries, and did not try to formulate any original system. The contributions of the successive commentators served to make each system more complete and stronger to enable it to hold its own successfully against the opposition and attacks of the rival schools. Hence no study of the Indian philosophy is adequate without the study of commentaries which had kept it living through the ages of history.<ref name=":12" />

== Classification of Bharatiya Shastras ==

== Classification of Bharatiya Shastras ==

Traditionally Bharatiya shastras involving the systems of philosophy was divided into two classes:<ref name=":12">Dasgupta, Surendranath. (7th Reprint : 2012) A History of Indian Philosophy. Volume 1. New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>

Traditionally Bharatiya shastras involving the theological concepts, creation, beliefs about the core concepts of Sanatana Dharma such as Moksha, JIva, Brahman, etc was divided into two classes based primarily on belief of the existence of a Supreme Being followed by the acceptance of the authority of Vedas:<ref name=":12">Dasgupta, Surendranath. (7th Reprint : 2012) A History of Indian Philosophy. Volume 1. New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>

* Astika (अास्तिकः)

* Astika (अास्तिकः)

* Nastika (नास्तिकः)

* Nastika (नास्तिकः)

#* The School of Idealism or Yogacharas

#* The School of Idealism or Yogacharas

#* The School of Nihilism or the Madhyamikas.

#* The School of Nihilism or the Madhyamikas.

The Nastika group assumes that reality is confined to what is given in common experience and is described as positivistic or empirical in nature.    

The Nastika group assumes that reality is confined to what is given in common experience and is described as positivistic or empirical in nature. When the term Shad Darsanas is employed, it generally refers to the six Astika Darsanas. The scope of the present article is confined to the six Astika systems of Indian Darshanas which will be introduced in the following sections. All darshanas even though have different view points and ideologies, are completely in agreement regarding to some basic tenets.    

 

When the term Shad Darsanas is employed, it means the six Astika Darsanas. In this article the six Astika systems of Indian Philosophy will be introduced.

== दर्शनानं सांम्यम् ॥ Fundamental Points of Agreement ==

== दर्शनानं सांम्यम् ॥ Fundamental Points of Agreement ==

The systems of philosophy in India were not stirred up merely by the speculative demands of the human mind which has a natural inclination for indulging in abstract thought, but by deep craving after the realization of the religious purpose of life.  It is to be noted that the postulates, aims and conditions for such a realization were found to be identical in all the conflicting systems that have evolved. It is remarkable that with the exception of the Charvaka materialists all the other systems agree on some fundamental points of importance, namely.  

The systems of philosophy in India were not stirred up merely by the speculative demands of the human mind which has a natural inclination for indulging in abstract thought, but by deep craving after the realization of the higher purpose of life.  It is to be noted that the postulates, aims and conditions for such a realization were found to be identical in all the conflicting systems that have evolved. It is remarkable that with the exception of the Charvaka materialists all the other systems agree on some fundamental points of importance, namely.  

# Karma (कर्म । Action) and Punarjana (पुनर्जन्म । Rebirth) siddhanta  

# Karma (कर्म । Action) and Punarjana (पुनर्जन्म । Rebirth) siddhanta  

# Moksha (मोक्षः । Liberation) siddhanta

# Moksha (मोक्षः । Liberation) siddhanta

But all agree in holding that it is pure and unsullied in its nature and that all impurities of action or passion do not form a real part of it. When all impurities are removed the pure nature of the self is thoroughly and permanently apprehended and all other extraneous connections with it are absolutely dissociated.<ref name=":12" />

But all agree in holding that it is pure and unsullied in its nature and that all impurities of action or passion do not form a real part of it. When all impurities are removed the pure nature of the self is thoroughly and permanently apprehended and all other extraneous connections with it are absolutely dissociated.<ref name=":12" />

== Points of Differences ==

== दर्शनानं वैशम्यम् ॥ Points of Differences ==

While we see above the different points on which all Darshana shastras agree on there are some points of differences for which each shastra proposes its theory and standpoint. A few such concepts are as follows

While we see above the different points on which all Darshana shastras agree on there are some points of differences for which each shastra proposes its theory and standpoint. A few such concepts are as follows

# '''Nature of the World : Real or Unreal.''' The outside world is known to us through the mind assisted by the operation of the senses. However, whether the external world is dependent on the mind or not is an important controversy among philosophers. Those darshanas which believe that independent existence of the external world are described as Realistic and those that believe in the reverse are termed Idealistic.

# '''Nature of the World : Real or Unreal.''' The outside world is known to us through the mind assisted by the operation of the senses. However, whether the external world is dependent on the mind or not is an important controversy among philosophers. Those darshanas which believe that independent existence of the external world are described as Realistic and those that believe in the reverse are termed Idealistic.

# '''Nature of Ultimate Reality : One (Monistic View) or Many (Pluralistic View).''' Nyaya similar to Samkhya darshana maintains that it is many, while Advaita vedanta maintains the Brahman is One.

# '''Nature of Ultimate Reality : One (Monistic View) or Many (Pluralistic View).''' Nyaya similar to Samkhya darshana maintains that it is many, while Advaita vedanta maintains the Brahman is One.

== कार्यवादः ॥ Karyavada or Theory of Causation ==

== कार्यवादः ॥ Karyavada or Theory of Causation ==

Upanishads are rightly regarded as the fountain-head of all Indian philosophy. All darshanas which critically discuss about the Atman, Brahman and Sristhi or the Origin of the world have the seeds of thought from the Upanishads. Based on describing the cause for the existence of the world, different theories have been put forward which is another common feature seen in these darshanas. The basic questions involved in any theory of causation is :<ref name=":22" />

Upanishads are rightly regarded as the fountain-head of all Indian philosophy. All darshanas which critically discuss about the Atman, Brahman and Sristhi or the Origin of the world have the seeds of thought from the Upanishads. Based on describing the cause for the existence of the world, different theories have been put forward which is another common feature seen in these darshanas. The basic questions involved in any theory of causation is :<ref name=":22" />

  Does the effect pre-exist in its material cause? Is the effect a real transformation or an unreal appearance of its cause?

  Does the effect pre-exist in its material cause? Is the effect a real transformation or an unreal appearance of its cause?

To explain these questions many theories have been put forward by different schools of philosophy. Apart from the shad darshanas, other philosophies that have originated in Bharatavarsha have also expounded their theories of causation. They are summarized in brief as given below: (see p. 139 of Reference <ref name=":22" />)   

To explain these questions many theories have been put forward by different schools of darshanas both Astika and Nastika. Apart from the shad darshanas, other philosophies that have originated in Bharatavarsha have also expounded their theories of causation. They are summarized in brief as given below: (see p. 139 of Reference <ref name=":22" />)   

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

|Anitya Paramanuvada (अनित्यपरमाणुवादः) or Kshanabhangavada (क्षणभङ्गवादः)

|Anitya Paramanuvada (अनित्यपरमाणुवादः) or Kshanabhangavada (क्षणभङ्गवादः)

|-

|-

|Nyaya and Vaiseshika (न्यायम्-वैशेषिकः )

|'''Nyaya and Vaiseshika (न्यायम्-वैशेषिकः )'''

|Nitya Paramanukaranavada (नित्यपरमाणुकारणवादः)

|Nitya Paramanukaranavada (नित्यपरमाणुकारणवादः)

|-

|-

|Prabhakara Mimamsa (मीमांसा)

|'''Prabhakara Mimamsa (मीमांसा)'''

|Nitya Paramanukaranavada (नित्यपरमाणुकारणवादः)

|Nitya Paramanukaranavada (नित्यपरमाणुकारणवादः)

|-

|-

! rowspan="5" |Satkaryavada (सत्कार्यवादः) Theory of Evolution

! rowspan="5" |Satkaryavada (सत्कार्यवादः) Theory of Evolution

| rowspan="5" |The effect (कार्यम् । karya) pre-exists (सत् । sat) in its material cause. Effect is an explicit manifestation of that which is contained in its material cause. Based on the reality or unreality of the effect it is further classified into two.   

| rowspan="5" |The effect (कार्यम् । karya) pre-exists (सत् । sat) in its material cause. Effect is an explicit manifestation of that which is contained in its material cause. Based on the reality or unreality of the effect it is further classified into two.   

|Samkhya and Yoga (साङ्ख्यः - योगः)  

|'''Samkhya and Yoga (साङ्ख्यः - योगः)'''

|Prkriti-parinamavada (प्रकृतिपरिणामवादः)

|Prkriti-parinamavada (प्रकृतिपरिणामवादः)

| rowspan="2" |Parinamavada (परिणामवादः) : Expounds that the effect is a real transformation of its cause.  

| rowspan="2" |Parinamavada (परिणामवादः) : Expounds that the effect is a real transformation of its cause.  

Brahman really transforms Himself as the world of matter and of souls.

Brahman really transforms Himself as the world of matter and of souls.

|-

|-

|Ramanuja's Vishishta-advaita (विशिष्टद्वैत-सिद्धान्तः)  

|'''Ramanuja's Vishishta-advaita (विशिष्टद्वैत-सिद्धान्तः)'''

|Brahma-parinamavada (ब्रह्मपरिणामवादः)

|Brahma-parinamavada (ब्रह्मपरिणामवादः)

|-

|-

|Vijnana vivartavada (विज्ञानविवर्तवादः)

|Vijnana vivartavada (विज्ञानविवर्तवादः)

|-

|-

|Shankara's Advaita (अद्वैतसिद्धान्तः)

|'''Shankara's Advaita (अद्वैतसिद्धान्तः)'''

|Brahma vivartavada (ब्रह्मविवर्तवादः)

|Brahma vivartavada (ब्रह्मविवर्तवादः)

|-

|-

! rowspan="2" |Sadasatkaryavada (सदसत्कार्यवादः)

! rowspan="2" |Sadasatkaryavada (सदसत्कार्यवादः)

| rowspan="2" |The effect is both real as well as unreal before its production.

| rowspan="2" |The effect is both real as well as unreal before its production.

|Kumarila Bhatta's Mimamsa (मीमांसा)

|'''Kumarila Bhatta's Mimamsa (मीमांसा)'''

| rowspan="2" |Sadasatkaryavada (सदसत्कार्यवादः)

| rowspan="2" |Sadasatkaryavada (सदसत्कार्यवादः)

| rowspan="2" |The effect is real as identical with the cause and unreal as a modal change thereof, though ultimately both incline towards Parinamavada.  

| rowspan="2" |The effect is real as identical with the cause and unreal as a modal change thereof, though ultimately both incline towards Parinamavada.  

Thus we see above that different darshanas whether Astika or Nastika, have tried to explain the fundamental concepts of origin of the world and matter using the pramanas and logical discussions.  

Thus we see above that different darshanas whether Astika or Nastika, have tried to explain the fundamental concepts of origin of the world and matter using the pramanas and logical discussions.  

== विवेकज्ञानम् ॥ Viveka Jnana ==

== दार्शनिकलक्ष्यम् ॥ Goal of Darshanas ==

Though the belief that the world is full of sorrow has not been equally prominently emphasized in all systems, yet it may be considered as being shared by all of them. It finds its strongest utterance in Samkhya, Yoga and Buddhism. This interminable chain of pleasurable and painful experiences does not lead one to a peaceful end but embroiling and entangling us in the meshes of karma, rebirth,  and sorrow. All human experiences are essentially sorrowful and ultimately sorrow begetting.  Sorrow is the ultimate truth of this process of the world. That which to an ordinary person seems pleasurable appears to a wise person or to a yogi who has a clearer vision as painful. The greater the knowledge the higher is the sensitiveness to sorrow and dissatisfaction with world experiences. This sorrow of worldly experiences cannot be removed by bringing in remedies for each sorrow, nor be avoided by mere inaction or suicide. The only way to get rid of it is by the culmination of moral greatness and true knowledge (ज्ञानम् । Jnana) which uproot sorrow once and for all. It is our ignorance that the self is intimately connected with the experiences of life or its pleasures, that leads us to action and arouses passion in us for the enjoyment of pleasures and other emotions and activities.<ref name=":12" />   

Though the belief that the world is full of sorrow has not been equally prominently emphasized in all systems, yet it may be considered as being shared by all of them. It finds its strongest utterance in Samkhya, Yoga and Buddhism. This interminable chain of pleasurable and painful experiences does not lead one to a peaceful end but embroiling and entangling us in the meshes of karma, rebirth,  and sorrow. All human experiences are essentially sorrowful and ultimately sorrow begetting.  Sorrow is the ultimate truth of this process of the world. That which to an ordinary person seems pleasurable appears to a wise person or to a yogi who has a clearer vision as painful. The greater the knowledge the higher is the sensitiveness to sorrow and dissatisfaction with world experiences. This sorrow of worldly experiences cannot be removed by bringing in remedies for each sorrow, nor be avoided by mere inaction or suicide. The only way to get rid of it is by the culmination of moral greatness and true knowledge (ज्ञानम् । Jnana) which uproot sorrow once and for all. It is our ignorance that the self is intimately connected with the experiences of life or its pleasures, that leads us to action and arouses passion in us for the enjoyment of pleasures and other emotions and activities.<ref name=":12" />   

* The Upanishads tell us that the Vedas - the storehouse of knowledge - have been breathed forth from Him (Brhd. Upan. 2.4.10); but they regard the Karma-kanda as secondary, being only a help to purify the mind by which purification one is made fit to receive the real teaching about Brahman.   

* The Upanishads tell us that the Vedas - the storehouse of knowledge - have been breathed forth from Him (Brhd. Upan. 2.4.10); but they regard the Karma-kanda as secondary, being only a help to purify the mind by which purification one is made fit to receive the real teaching about Brahman.   

* We find in Chandogya Upanishad (7.2) the [[Narada Sanatkumara Samvada (नारदसनत्कुमारयोः संवादः)|Narada Sanatkumara Samvada]] that even though one is well-versed in the knowledge of the Vedas, Mantras and the Chaturdasha Vidyas, he or she could still be ignorant about the Self. Only one who knows the Self goes beyond sorrow.   

* We find in Chandogya Upanishad (7.2) the [[Narada Sanatkumara Samvada (नारदसनत्कुमारयोः संवादः)|Narada Sanatkumara Samvada]] that even though one is well-versed in the knowledge of the Vedas, Mantras and the [[Vaidika Vangmaya (वैदिकवाङ्मयम्)|Chaturdasha Vidyas]], he or she could still be ignorant about the Self. Only one who knows the Self goes beyond sorrow.   

* The Mundakopanishad (1.1.4 and 5) tells us: "Two kinds of knowledge must be known, the higher and the lower. The lower knowledge is that which the Rk, Sama, Atharva, ceremonial, grammar give .... but the higher knowledge is that by which the immortal Brahman is known.     

* The Mundakopanishad (1.1.4 and 5) tells us: "Two kinds of knowledge must be known, the higher and the lower. The lower knowledge is that which the Rk, Sama, Atharva, ceremonial, grammar give .... but the higher knowledge is that by which the immortal Brahman is known.     

* In the Bhagavadgita (2.45 and 46)also Srikrishna asks Arjuna to rise above the three gunas. <ref name=":22" />   

* In the Bhagavadgita (2.45 and 46)also Srikrishna asks Arjuna to rise above the three gunas. <ref name=":22" />   

Here we attempt to give a brief outline about the six schools of Indian philosophy. It may be noted that all the topics will be covered in a detailed manner under respective individual headings. We see that each school has its own characteristic points (such as Mahat and Ahamkara of Sankhya, Padarthas of Vaiseshika etc) all the while presenting arguments in agreement with and refuting some of their principles.  

Here we attempt to give a brief outline about the six schools of Indian philosophy. It may be noted that all the topics will be covered in a detailed manner under respective individual headings. We see that each school has its own characteristic points (such as Mahat and Ahamkara of Sankhya, Padarthas of Vaiseshika etc) all the while presenting arguments in agreement with and refuting some of their principles.  

=== Nyaya and Vaiseshika Darshanas ===

=== Nyaya and Vaiseshika ===

The Vaiseshika darshana is reagarded as conducive to the study of all systems. It deals with the Padarthas (पदार्थः । categories) and the entire universe is reduced to six or seven padarthas. The word 'padartha' means 'the meaning of a word' or 'the object signified by a word'. All objects of knowledge or all reals come under padartha. Padartha means an object which can be thought (ज्ञेयम् । jneya) and named (अभिधेयः । abhidheya). The Vaiseshika system is a pluralistic realism,  a philosophy of identity and difference, which emphasizes that the heart of reality consists on difference.  It is a mere catalogue of the knowables, an enumeration of the diverse reals without any attempt to synthesize them. Originally the Vaiseshika believed in the six categories and the seventh, that of Abhava or negation was added on later.  The Vaiseshika divides all existent reals which are all objects of knowledge into two classes - bhava or being and abhava or non-being. All knowledge necessarily points to an object beyond and independent of it. Nyaya accepts the metaphysics of the Vaiseshika school and the accounts of matter, soul and God are almost the same as those in the Vaiseshika.<ref name=":22" />   

The Vaiseshika darshana is regarded as conducive to the study of all systems. It deals with the Padarthas (पदार्थः । categories) and the entire universe is reduced to six or seven padarthas. The word 'padartha' means 'the meaning of a word' or 'the object signified by a word'. All objects of knowledge or all reals come under padartha. Padartha means an object which can be thought (ज्ञेयम् । jneya) and named (अभिधेयः । abhidheya). The Vaiseshika system is a pluralistic realism,  a philosophy of identity and difference, which emphasizes that the heart of reality consists on difference.  It is a mere catalogue of the knowables, an enumeration of the diverse reals without any attempt to synthesize them. Originally the Vaiseshika believed in the six categories and the seventh, that of Abhava or negation was added on later.  The Vaiseshika divides all existent reals which are all objects of knowledge into two classes - bhava or being and abhava or non-being. All knowledge necessarily points to an object beyond and independent of it. Nyaya accepts the metaphysics of the Vaiseshika school and the accounts of matter, soul and God are almost the same as those in the Vaiseshika.<ref name=":22" />   

Nyaya-Vaiseshika believes in the doctrine of ''Asatkaryavada'' (असत्कार्यवादः ) which means that the effect does not pre-exist in its cause. The effect is a new beginning, a fresh creation. It is also called Arambhavada (आरम्भवादः) or Paramanukaranavada (परमाणुकरणवादः). Among the Nastika darshanas Hinayana Buddhism, Charvakas, and a group of Mimamsa believes in Asatkaryavada.<ref name=":22" />   

Nyaya-Vaiseshika believes in the doctrine of ''Asatkaryavada'' (असत्कार्यवादः ) which means that the effect does not pre-exist in its cause. The effect is a new beginning, a fresh creation. It is also called Arambhavada (आरम्भवादः) or Paramanukaranavada (परमाणुकरणवादः). Among the Nastika darshanas Hinayana Buddhism, Charvakas, and a group of Mimamsa believes in Asatkaryavada.<ref name=":22" />   

==== Vishishtadvaita Siddhanta ====

==== Vishishtadvaita Siddhanta ====

According to the Vishishta Advaita Siddhanta of Ramanuja<ref name=":32" />  

According to the Vishishta Advaita Siddhanta of Sri Ramanujaacharya<ref name=":32" />  

* The Brahman, the soul and the physical world are all different and equally eternal, they are at the same time quite inseparable.   

* The Brahman, the soul and the physical world are all different and equally eternal, they are at the same time quite inseparable.   

* Ramanuja acknowledges only two categories - substance (dravya) and non-substance (adravya) or attribute. By substance is meant "what undergoes change" or "what has modes (avasthas)" and it is of six kinds, three of which are Prkrti, Jiva and God.  

* Ramanuja acknowledges only two categories - substance (dravya) and non-substance (adravya) or attribute. By substance is meant "what undergoes change" or "what has modes (avasthas)" and it is of six kinds, three of which are Prkrti, Jiva and God.