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=== Who has the Adhikara for Sadhana? ===
=== Who has the Adhikara for Sadhana? ===
The entire humanity is meant for Sadhana as the animal world bereft of rationality is beyond its purview. The theory of evolution both ancient and modern acclaims the human being as the finest product of creation endowed richly with an enormous power of thought and deed that could be directed towards the attainment of perfection.<ref name=":2">Anantha Rangacharya, N. S. (2006 Second Edition) ''The Philosophy of Sadhana in Visishtadvaita.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers. (Pages 2)</ref>
The entire humanity is meant for Sadhana as the animal world bereft of rationality is beyond its purview. The theory of evolution both ancient and modern acclaims the human being as the finest product of creation endowed richly with an enormous power of thought and deed that could be directed towards the attainment of perfection.<ref name=":2">Anantha Rangacharya, N. S. (2006 Second Edition) ''The Philosophy of Sadhana in Visishtadvaita.'' Bangalore: Sri Rama Printers. (Pages 2-6)</ref>
Man is not a mere compound of certain elements that appears by chance at certain times and disappears at certain other times without a permanent phase. Man has been the subject of study and speculation from very early times and seers with wisdom have arrived at the fundamental truth that he is an eternal principle different and distinct from matter. This revelation of the eternality of the self is the fulcrum on which the entire superstructure of Sadhana rests. So the psychology of the Jiva has to be studied and his relationship with the Universe has to be understood. This leads us to the understanding why [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|Moksha]] (includes the Atma jnana), the Paramapurushartha, is considered the highest among the four [[Purushartha (पुरुषार्थ:)|Purusharthas]] and is a unique goal of a human being alone.<ref name=":2" />
Man is not a mere compound of certain elements that appears by chance at certain times and disappears at certain other times without a permanent phase. Man has been the subject of study and speculation from very early times and seers with wisdom have arrived at the fundamental truth that he is an eternal principle different and distinct from matter. This revelation of the eternality of the self is the fulcrum on which the entire superstructure of Sadhana rests. So the psychology of the Jiva has to be studied and his relationship with the Universe has to be understood. This leads us to the understanding why [[Moksha (मोक्षः)|Moksha]] (includes the Atma jnana), the Paramapurushartha, is considered the highest among the four [[Purushartha (पुरुषार्थ:)|Purusharthas]] and is a unique goal of a human being alone.<ref name=":2" />
=== The Sadhya ===
=== The Sadhya ===
It is indispensible for a Sadhaka to have a thorough understanding of the nature of the goal he aspires to achieve. He must know very precisely the full content of his ideal with all its implications so that his efforts may not be wasted or misdirected.
It is indispensible for a Sadhaka to have a thorough understanding of the nature of the goal he aspires to achieve. He must know very precisely the full content of his ideal with all its implications so that his efforts may not be wasted or misdirected.
==== Sadhya in Advaita Vedanta ====
The quintessence of Shri Adishankaracharya’s philosophy was stated by himself in half-a-verse:
''Brahma satyam jagan-mithya, Jivo brahmaiva naparah''
Brahman, the Absolute, alone is real; this world is unreal (maya); and the jiva or the individual soul is not different from Brahman.
The ''Upanisadik'' terms ‘''Brahman''‘ and ‘''Atman''‘ indicate the highest Reality, which is non-dual. Supreme ''Brahman'' is ''nirguna, nirakara, nirvisesa'', that is, without the ''gunas'' or attributes, formless, without any special characteristics, immutable, eternal, and ''akarta'' (non-agent). ''Brahman'' is above all needs and desires; It is always the witnessing subject; It can never become the obiect as it is beyond the reach of the senses. It is non-dual. One without a second. In ''Brahman'' there is not the distinction of substance and attributes (undifferentiated). ''Brahman'', the Absolute, is Existence (''sat''), Consciousness (''cit'') and Bliss (''änanda''); These form the ''svarupa'' of ''Brahman''.<ref>Essay by Swami Dayanda Saraswati on Sri Sankaracharya. Source: https://shlokam.org/sankaracharya/</ref>
==== Sadhya in Visistadvaita Sampradaya ====
The Absolute of Visistadvaitam is characterised by its attributes of the sentient and the non-sentient unlike that of the undifferentiated Brahman of Advaita. Desika affirms that the study of vedantic reality as tattva relates to only one Absolute, the, Brahman characterized by its modal expressions of the chit and the achit.<ref name=":2" />
अशेषचिदचित्प्रकारं ब्रह्मैकमेव तत्त्वम्। (Nyaya. Sidd. Page 187)
Sri. Ramanujacharya comes to the conclusion of one Supreme Reality on different grounds of visistaikya. ‘Brahman is qualified by plurality but is not itself plural. The individual selves as well as matter, though really different from Brahman, the Supreme self, form one with it being its attributes. Ramanuja explains the relationship of the world with Brahman in a realistic way following the parishkrita saktivada according to which the chit and the achit are admitted as the shakti of the Supreme or attributes inseparable and powerful of action. the philosophy of Ramanujacharya is established in the central thought that Brahman is the ground of all existence and that all other entities exist to glorify it.<ref>Srinivasachari, P. N. (1943) ''The Philosophy of Visistadvaita.'' Adyar: The Adyar Library</ref><ref name=":2" />
==== Sadhya in Dvaita Sampradaya ====
Dvaita metaphysics considers the Supreme Reality, the Brahman, Vishnu is self-distinguishing Absolute Self. As such, He is eminently personal.<ref name=":3" /> Brahman is the ground (base) of the universe. The universe consists of chetana (consciousness) and achetana (matter). It is not superimposed on Brahman. Brahman is considered as the Atman of the world (body). The world is real and there are three senses in which a thing can be considered real. A thing is real if it has<ref name=":6">Raghavendrachar, H. N. (1941) ''The Dvaita Philosophy and Its Place in the Vedanta.'' Mysore: The University of Mysore. (Page 12)</ref>
# an existence of its own (satta)
# has knowledge (pramiti)
# its own function (pravrtti).
Chetana is real in all the three senses, while achetana is real in the first and last senses (it has no knowledge). The reality of the world is dependent (asvatantra). The source is independent (svatantra) has independent reality. It has its existence (satta), function (pravtti), and knowledge (pramiti) quite independent of other things. Brahman is changeless, and perfect.<ref name=":6" />
== Sadhana Bhedas and Outcomes ==
== Sadhana Bhedas and Outcomes ==
# '''Angavabaddha Upasana (अङ्गावबद्धोपासन)''': This is a many-sided form of worship involving a plurality of details. The course is not yet single-centred, and materials for progress and development are gathered from many sources, just as physical development. But although here the sources are many and separate, it is to be remembered that all of them have the same end in view. Shrauta yajnas, Anganyasa, Karanyasa, Mahanyasa, Laghunyasa, Kavacham of any deity such as Shiva, Vishnu, Devi etc., are a few examples of this kind of Upasana. Here the worship involves one (worshipper) to many forms.<ref name=":5" />
# '''Angavabaddha Upasana (अङ्गावबद्धोपासन)''': This is a many-sided form of worship involving a plurality of details. The course is not yet single-centred, and materials for progress and development are gathered from many sources, just as physical development. But although here the sources are many and separate, it is to be remembered that all of them have the same end in view. Shrauta yajnas, Anganyasa, Karanyasa, Mahanyasa, Laghunyasa, Kavacham of any deity such as Shiva, Vishnu, Devi etc., are a few examples of this kind of Upasana. Here the worship involves one (worshipper) to many forms.<ref name=":5" />
# '''Pratika Upasana (प्रतीकोपासन)''': It concentrates on one particular form. It regards one symbol as the representative of everything. Just as the brain is the centre of the organism, so also does the pratika symbolise the source of the universe, and the worship of the pratika symbolizes the worship of everything. Here the source is found out and worship is concentrated on this source, a transition from the ‘many’ to the ‘one.’ It is the common characteristic of all forms of Bhakti Upasana, viz., the Vaishnava, Saiva and Shakta. The pratika symbolises the one all-engrossing object of adoration, worship and love. It is the creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe and is present always in everything. The emphasis here is on the object and it is pre-eminently an objective Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />
# '''Pratika Upasana (प्रतीकोपासन)''': It concentrates on one particular form. It regards one symbol as the representative of everything. Just as the brain is the centre of the organism, so also does the pratika symbolise the source of the universe, and the worship of the pratika symbolizes the worship of everything. Here the source is found out and worship is concentrated on this source, a transition from the ‘many’ to the ‘one.’ It is the common characteristic of all forms of Bhakti Upasana, viz., the Vaishnava, Saiva and Shakta. The pratika symbolises the one all-engrossing object of adoration, worship and love. It is the creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe and is present always in everything. The emphasis here is on the object and it is pre-eminently an objective Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />
# '''Ahamgraha Upasana (अहंग्रहोपासन)''': Here the object of worship is not different from the subject himself. The Self is not to worship any (Devata or Symbol) different from itself because there is nothing different from the Self as given in the Brahmasutras - न प्रतीके न हि सः।।4.1.4।। Here the transition is to 'One without any division.' The transition from the dualism of subject and object to the oneness or identity between the two, viz., the Self and the Brahman is to be achieved. <ref name=":5" />
# '''Ahamgraha Upasana (अहंग्रहोपासन)''': Here the object of worship is not different from the subject himself. The Self is not to worship any (Devata or Symbol) different from itself because there is nothing different from the Self as given in the Brahmasutras - न प्रतीके न हि सः।।4.1.4।। Here the transition is to 'One without any division.' The transition from the dualism of subject and object to the oneness or identity between the two, viz., the Self and the Brahman is to be achieved. Upanishads and Vedanta describe such upasana vividly.<ref name=":5" />
In the first stage, the worshipper finds that ‘many’ are to be worshipped and worships them all ; in the second, the ‘many’ reduce themselves to the One and only the One Absolute is worshipped, but still the duality between the worshipper and the worshipped remains prominent ; in the third, even this duality vanishes.<ref name=":5" />
In the first stage, the worshipper finds that ‘many’ are to be worshipped and worships them all ; in the second, the ‘many’ reduce themselves to the One and only the One Absolute is worshipped, but still the duality between the worshipper and the worshipped remains prominent ; in the third, even this duality vanishes.<ref name=":5" />
It answers the epistemological question of what knowledge is by stating that “Everything that is around us is covered by brahman.” Alternatively, what is considered knowledge can be broken down into three parts: the controller, self and everything around the self, and the controller covering or permeating self and each of the elements around the self. Knowledge, it is implied, is not only knowing what we see around us in its variety as independent entities and agents, but to realize that each of the elements is permeated and controlled by brahman.<ref name=":72" />
It answers the epistemological question of what knowledge is by stating that “Everything that is around us is covered by brahman.” Alternatively, what is considered knowledge can be broken down into three parts: the controller, self and everything around the self, and the controller covering or permeating self and each of the elements around the self. Knowledge, it is implied, is not only knowing what we see around us in its variety as independent entities and agents, but to realize that each of the elements is permeated and controlled by brahman.<ref name=":72" />
Everything in this universe is covered by its controller also addresses the ontological quest – What is the being or self – by affirming that it is brahman or controller of the universe. The self and everything in the environment is brahman because brahman permeates everything. Thus, epistemology and ontology merge in Indian psychology. “brahman exists and brahman is the being” addresses the ontology, and knowing this – brahman exists and permeates everything – addresses epistemology.<ref name=":72" />
Everything in this universe is covered by its controller also addresses the ontological quest – What is the being or self – by affirming that it is brahman or controller of the universe. The self and everything in the environment is brahman because brahman permeates everything. Thus, epistemology and ontology merge in Indian psychology.
== Sadhana in Sampradayas ==
== Sadhana in Sampradayas ==
The different systems of philosophy have prescribed different means for attainment of spiritual perfection and these vary sometimes from person to person according to their mental and spiritual attainments. The different schools of Vedanta have expounded the philosophy of Sadhana in their own characteristic way and prescribed either Action (Karma-marga) or Knowledge (Jnana-marga), or Devotion, the self-surrender (Bhakti-marga) as the case may be, as the means for perfection.<ref name=":2" />
The different systems of philosophy have prescribed different means for attainment of spiritual perfection and these vary sometimes from person to person according to their mental and spiritual attainments. The different schools of Vedanta have expounded the philosophy of Sadhana in their own characteristic way and prescribed either Action (Karma-marga) or Knowledge (Jnana-marga), or Devotion, the self-surrender (Bhakti-marga) as the case may be, as the means for perfection.<ref name=":2" />