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Sadhana (Samskrit: साधनम्) is a term widely used in the Vedantic and Yoga texts to primarily represent instruments or means which are helpful in leading an aspirant to experience the higher states of consciousness.

Sadhana (Samskrit: साधना) is a term widely used in the Vedantic and Yoga texts to primarily represent instruments or means which are helpful in leading an aspirant to experience the higher states of consciousness.

Sadhana in the practical context is always used to indicate the essential preliminary (human) discipline that leads to the attainment of the spiritual experience which is regarded as the ''summum bonum'' (the highest good or Siddhi, i.e., completion and perfection) of existence. Sadhana includes all the religious practices and ceremonies that are helpful to the realization of spiritual experience, and therefore may be regarded as the practical side of religion, as distinguished from the discussion of the theories of the relation of divinity to man and the universe and other such topics which constitute the theoretical aspects in the domain of philosophy. Sadhana is that by which "Siddhi" or perfection is attained i.e., the instrument of perfection.<ref name=":0">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 21-24)</ref>   

Sadhana in the practical context is always used to indicate the essential preliminary (human) discipline that leads to the attainment of the spiritual experience which is regarded as the ''summum bonum'' (the highest good or Siddhi, i.e., completion and perfection) of existence. Sadhana includes all the religious practices and ceremonies that are helpful to the realization of spiritual experience, and therefore may be regarded as the practical side of religion, as distinguished from the discussion of the theories of the relation of divinity to man and the universe and other such topics which constitute the theoretical aspects in the domain of philosophy. Sadhana is that by which "Siddhi" or perfection is attained i.e., the instrument of perfection.<ref name=":0">Brahma, Nalinīkānta. ''Philosophy of Hindu Sādhanā.'' United Kingdom: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner & Company, Limited, 1932. (Pages 21-24)</ref>   

There is yet another classification of Sadhana into different ways based on the important [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]] tenets, namely,  

There is yet another classification of Sadhana into different ways based on the important [[Sanatana Dharma (सनातनधर्मः)|Sanatana Dharma]] tenets, namely,  

# Karma-marga

# Karma

# Bhakti-marga

# Bhakti

# Jnana-marga

# Jnana

The three great forms of Sadhana; Jnana, Yoga and Bhakti are not arbitrary divisions but based on important principles. Sadhana may proceed by emphasizing the subject or the object. The emphasis is laid on the object-factor by the Bhakti schools, while it is on the subject by the Jnana and Yoga schools of thought.<ref name=":5" />

Sadhana may proceed by emphasizing the subject or the object. The emphasis is laid on the object-factor by the Bhakti schools, while it is on the subject by the Jnana and Yoga schools of thought. The Yoga-system, again, gives '''primacy to will''', and the development of the subject is sought to be attained through the education of the will. It is the will that manifests the whole personality of man, and reason, being only a partial element in his constitution, need not be separately trained. The Kapila-Samkhya and the Vedanta, both preaching Jnana ascribe the '''primacy to reason''' which alone can control the other elements, because the other elements are subordinate to reason. Jnana and Yoga are thus two sub-divisions of the subjective  form of Sadhana—one intellectualistic and the other voluntaristic, and they preach two distinctly opposite methods of attaining the end. It depends on the person choosing the way, as not all are fitted for one, and some are not for the other (way). As Vashista says<ref name=":5" />

The Bhagavad Gita speaks of two divisions—Karma and Jnana. <blockquote>लोकेऽस्मिन् द्विविधा निष्ठा पुरा प्रोक्ता मयानघ । ज्ञानयोगेन साङ्ख्यानां कर्मयोगेन योगिनाम् ॥ ३-३॥ (Bhag. Gita. 3.3)</blockquote>Meaning: In this world there is a two-fold path, as told earlier, O sinless one, the ‘Path-of-Knowledge (ज्ञानयोग)’ of the Samkhyans and the ‘Path-of-Action (कर्मयोग)’ of the Yogis.

It is well-known that Vedas are said to have two important branches—Karma-kanda ([[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]] texts) and Jnana-kanda ([[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]). The Bhagavad Gita also speaks of two divisions—Karma and Jnana. <blockquote>लोकेऽस्मिन् द्विविधा निष्ठा पुरा प्रोक्ता मयानघ । ज्ञानयोगेन साङ्ख्यानां कर्मयोगेन योगिनाम् ॥ ३-३॥ (Bhag. Gita. 3.3)</blockquote>Meaning: In this world there is a two-fold path, as told earlier, O sinless one, the ‘Path-of-Knowledge (ज्ञानयोग)’ of the Samkhyans and the ‘Path-of-Action (कर्मयोग)’ of the Yogis.

It is well-known that Vedas are said to have two important branches—Karma-kanda ([[Brahmana (ब्राह्मणम्)|Brahmana]] texts) and Jnana-kanda ([[Upanishads (उपनिषदः)|Upanishads]]). Bhakti or Upasana is placed under Karma-marga and is not given a separate place. The Ashtangayoga of Patanjali, all the Vaisnava schools, the Tantrika and Pasupata forms of Sadhana, and the yajna forms of Sadhana as prescribed in the Vedas would all be classified under Karma-marga. Under Jnana, the [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] and the [[Vedanta (वेदान्तः)|Vedanta]] forms of Sadhana are included. In the present context, Bhakti-marga is elucidated separately.

Bhakti or Upasana is placed under Karma-marga and is not given a separate place. The Ashtangayoga of Patanjali, all the Vaisnava schools, the Tantrika and Pasupata forms of Sadhana, and the yajna forms of Sadhana as prescribed in the Vedas would all be classified under Karma-marga. Under Jnana, the [[Samkhya Darshana (साङ्ख्यदर्शनम्)|Samkhya]] and the [[Vedanta (वेदान्तः)|Vedanta]] forms of Sadhana are included. In the present context, Bhakti-marga is elucidated separately.

== Sadhana in Indian Psychology ==

=== Stages of Sadhana ===

In modern parlance '''epistemology''' or theory of knowledge is about nature, origin (or source), scope (or limitations), and variety of knowledge, i.e., what knowledge is, how it is acquired, what its relationship to truth is, its relationship to belief (i.e., knowledge is true belief), and its relationship with justification  (i.e., why and how do we know what we know, or how can we justify that we have the truth?). '''Ontology''' is about what the being is or it is the study of being. What is existence? Which entities are fundamental? What are it's characteristics?<ref name=":7">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 164-166)</ref>

One may note three distinct stages among various forms of Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />

The epistemology of Indian Psychology and philosophy merge with the general Indian worldview of knowledge, truth, and belief about making sense of the Self and the world. This is corroborated in the very first mantra of Ishavasopanishad - <blockquote>ईशावास्यमिदं सर्वं यत्किञ्च जगत्यां जगत् । तेन त्यक्तेन भुञ्जीथा मा गृधः कस्य स्विद्धनम् ॥ १ ॥ (Isav. Upan. 1)</blockquote>It clarifies that

# '''Upasana''' - Involves mental process of yajnas. Physical offering of materials and objects do not count as much as the feeling of reverence or worship. The bhava or the bhakti (devotion) becomes the most important element in worship (Bhavagrahi janardanah). Devatas who are the governing Almighty Powers, are also sought as the Holiest Personifications with divine love as the offering in various relationships between the worshipper and the worshipped. This is the basis of Sadhana advocated and elaborated in the Purana Literature. Here stuti of the devata, offering of phalam (fruits), patram (leaves), pushpam (flower) and toyam (water), along with love and reverence form the items of worship.<ref name=":5" />

# '''Jnana''' - Involves vichara and jnana which occupy the most prominent place. This is spoken of as Jnana-yajna in Bhagavad-gita and said to be superior to all other forms of worship. Here the externality of Devatas is replaced by internality and philosophy, and the constant meditation of the Absolute with a view to its realisation becomes the chief element in the course of spiritual discipline. This stage is elaborated in the Upanishadic literature. The Absolute is now recognised to be not merely consisting of feeling and love and intelligence, but is apprehended as transcending all these and hence to be reached by the Atman which also transcends intellect, feeling and love. The Almighty Power, termed Brahman is not any foreign Power or even any Person other than our own selves, but it is our own Higher Self termed Atman. The process does not involve "reaching" or "attaining," as in attaining things other than ourselves, but unfolding our own latent infinitude and gradually experience the higher states of expansion (Brahmabhavasca moksah). This form of Sadhana is peculiar to the Vedanta. The Jnanin or the liberated is not a ‘spiritual freak,’ as sometimes a mystic is wrongly supposed to be, but the man or the super-man “who has grown up to the full stature of humanity and united himself with that source of Life which is present everywhere.”<ref name=":5" />

# Everything in this universe is covered by or permeated by its controller or brahman.

These three stages give us three different conceptions of God, viz. God as the Almighty Power, God as the Supreme Person with whom we can enter into relationship of love, and God as the Self. While religions of other countries belong mostly to the second type, Hinduism has elements of all three. The Bhakti form of Sadhana, be it of any deity, is essentially theistic, whereas a supra-theistic position advocated by the Upanishads and Vedanta is not fully appreciated by the theists of the West, primarily because the elements therein transcend theism. Thus differs the Indian thought, the mental state, philosophy and psychology.  

# Protect yourself through renunciation or enjoy through renunciation (Bhuj dhatu also means to enjoy).

# Do not covet or desire, for whose is wealth (i.e., all that is accumulated is left behind when one dies)?

It answers the epistemological question of what knowledge is by stating that “Everything that is around us is covered by brahman.” Alternatively, what is considered knowledge can be broken down into three parts: the controller, self and everything around the self, and the controller covering or permeating self and each of the elements around the self. Knowledge, it is implied, is not only knowing what we see around us in its variety as independent entities and agents, but to realize that each of the elements is permeated and controlled by brahman.<ref name=":7" />

The three stages described above would correspond roughly to the<ref name=":5" />

Everything in this universe is covered by its controller also addresses the ontological quest – What is the being or self – by affirming that it is brahman or controller of the universe. The self and everything in the environment is brahman because brahman permeates everything. Thus, epistemology and ontology merge in Indian psychology. “brahman exists and brahman is the being” addresses the ontology, and knowing this – brahman exists and permeates everything – addresses epistemology.<ref name=":7" />

# '''Angavabaddha Upasana (अङ्गावबद्धोपासन)''': This is a many-sided form of worship involving a plurality of details. The course is not yet single-centred, and materials for progress and development are gathered from many sources, just as physical development.  But although here the sources are many and separate, it is to be remembered that all of them have the same end in view. Shrauta yajnas, Anganyasa, Karanyasa, Mahanyasa, Laghunyasa, Kavacham of any deity such as Shiva, Vishnu, Devi etc., are a few examples of this kind of Upasana. Here the worship involves one (worshipper) to many forms.<ref name=":5" />

# '''Pratika Upasana (प्रतीकोपासन)''': It concentrates on one particular form. It regards one symbol as the representative of everything. Just as the brain is the centre of the organism, so also does the pratika symbolise the source of the universe, and the worship of the pratika symbolizes the worship of everything.  Here the source is found out and worship is concentrated on this source, a transition from the ‘many’ to the ‘one.’ It is the common characteristic of all forms of Bhakti Upasana, viz., the Vaishnava, Saiva and Shakta. The pratika symbolises the one all-engrossing object of adoration, worship and love. It is the creator, preserver and destroyer of the universe and is present always in everything. The emphasis here is on the object and it is pre-eminently an objective Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />

# '''Ahamgraha Upasana (अहंग्रहोपासन)''': Here the object of worship is not different from the subject himself. The Self is not to worship any (Devata or Symbol) different from itself because there is nothing different from the Self as given in the Brahmasutras - न प्रतीके न हि सः।।4.1.4।। Here the transition is to 'One without any division.' The transition from the dualism of subject and object to the oneness or identity between the two, viz., the Self and the Brahman is to be achieved. <ref name=":5" />  

In the first stage, the worshipper finds that ‘many’ are to be worshipped and worships them all ; in the second, the ‘many’ reduce themselves to the One and only the One Absolute is worshipped, but still the duality between the worshipper and the worshipped remains prominent ; in the third, even this duality vanishes.<ref name=":5" />

Sadhana most certainly involves many psychological processes such as thoughts, ideas, facts, cognition, reality, sensation, truth or falsity, distinction between the subject and object, reasoning, intuition, knowledge and so on.

Sadhana begins with the consciousness of the existence of some Supreme Power, an intimate connection or rather a conscious union with which is deemed absolutely essential to the realisation of the ''summum bonum'' of life.<ref name=":5" />

== Sadhana - A Psychological Approach ==

In the previous section, we saw how worship has transitioned from externality to internality, a quality most unique to the human being. Whatever may be the path a sadhaka takes, he realizes that the finite, individual human being has an element of divinity inherent in him; and that the experience of the Infinite is not a foreign experience to him. The gradual unfolding of the latent, capacities of man in the direction of knowledge, power and holiness is the function and purpose of Sadhana.  

This Supreme Power has sometimes been regarded as the Higher Self of man himself and not any foreign power with whom only an external connection could possibly be established. Sadhana, thus means the conscious effort at unfolding the latent possibilities of the individual self and is hence limited to human beings alone. Only in man is the special equipment, viz. '''a conscious effort''' apparently separate from the activities of nature, comes into being.  

The mind is ordinarily engaged in diverse sense-oriented things, and because of its functioning in various directions its energy becomes diffused and fails to grasp truths clearly. However, when mental energy is conserved through concentration, un-common and wonderful powers are manifested by the mind. The highest development and purification of the intellect (Buddhi) seem to be the exact reflection of the Purusa or the Self which is omniscient. It is, however, only a reflection of the Self, and not the Self as it is in itself. Bauddik revelation is always dependent on some process, and Buddhi is only an instrument or rather a mirror for the revelation of truths. The atmic revelation alone is really free and independent, because it is revelation itself depending neither on any subject nor on any object. Buddhi becomes a fit instrument for revelation through concentration (dhyana), and in the samadhi or the sakshatkara state, the Buddhi merges into the Self which alone remains.

The inwardly directed individual Self perceives vaguely its latent infinitude and realises gradually that its limitation and bondage are not inherent in its nature but are rather imposed on it, and wants somehow to shake them off and thus realise its full autonomy. Liberation or vimukti is identical with freedom, and freedom is expansion. It is the gross outward matter and contact with matter that have made the Self appear limited. The deeper and deeper we dive into Self, the more of expansion, freedom and light do we feel and enjoy. The conscious urge of the finite to become more and more expanded till it realises its infinitude is what is really meant by mumukshutva (desire for liberation) which forms the unmistakable first step in the course of, Sadhana.<ref name=":5" />

[[Sadhana and Indian Psychology (साधनं मनोविज्ञानं च)]] are thus very intricately related topics that have significant implications on the personality and perspectives of a human being. Sanatana Dharma is based primarily and fundamentally in the actual living experience, its aim and emphasis always being the realization or anubhuti of the ultimate truth. Sadhana most certainly involves many psychological processes such as thoughts, ideas, facts, cognition, reality, sensation, truth or falsity, distinction between the subject and object, reasoning, intuition, knowledge and so on to bring about this realization or anubhuti.

==== Karma Marga ====

In modern parlance '''epistemology''' or theory of knowledge is about nature, origin (or source), scope (or limitations), and variety of knowledge, i.e., what knowledge is, how it is acquired, what its relationship to truth is, its relationship to belief (i.e., knowledge is true belief), and its relationship with justification  (i.e., why and how do we know what we know, or how can we justify that we have the truth?). '''Ontology''' is about what the being is or it is the study of being. What is existence? Which entities are fundamental? What are it's characteristics?<ref name=":72">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 164-166)</ref>

The epistemology of Indian Psychology and philosophy merge with the general Indian worldview of knowledge, truth, and belief about making sense of the Self and the world. This is corroborated in the very first mantra of Ishavasopanishad -<blockquote>ईशावास्यमिदं सर्वं यत्किञ्च जगत्यां जगत् । तेन त्यक्तेन भुञ्जीथा मा गृधः कस्य स्विद्धनम् ॥ १ ॥ (Isav. Upan. 1)</blockquote>It clarifies that

The objective of life is to experience the ultimate ontological truth - Self is Brahman - and the way to pursue it is through vairagya (renunciation) captured by the attributes of knowledge (Sadhana by Jnana-marga) is presented in the thirteenth adhyaya of Bhagavadgita. In other words, epistemology or the Indian theory of knowledge is to be able to live and experience the ontological belief that brahman is in everything in the universe, and it is practiced through a meticulous lifestyle filled with positivity.<ref name=":6">Bhawuk, Dharm. P. S. (2011) ''Spirituality and Indian Psychology, Lessons from the Bhagavad-Gita.'' New York, Dordrecht Heidelberg, London: Springer. (Pages 170-171)</ref>

# Everything in this universe is covered by or permeated by its controller or brahman.

 

# Protect yourself through renunciation or enjoy through renunciation (Bhuj dhatu also means to enjoy).

Bhagavadgita presents the all positive psychological elements or characteristics that everyone needs to cultivate to be able to learn the knowledge of Brahman. These elements of Jnana include<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>अमानित्वमदम्भित्वमहिंसा क्षान्तिरार्जवम् । आचार्योपासनं शौचं स्थैर्यमात्मविनिग्रहः ॥ १३-८॥

# Do not covet or desire, for whose is wealth (i.e., all that is accumulated is left behind when one dies)?

 

It answers the epistemological question of what knowledge is by stating that “Everything that is around us is covered by brahman.” Alternatively, what is considered knowledge can be broken down into three parts: the controller, self and everything around the self, and the controller covering or permeating self and each of the elements around the self. Knowledge, it is implied, is not only knowing what we see around us in its variety as independent entities and agents, but to realize that each of the elements is permeated and controlled by brahman.<ref name=":72" />

इन्द्रियार्थेषु वैराग्यमनहङ्कार एव च । जन्ममृत्युजराव्याधिदुःखदोषानुदर्शनम् ॥ १३-९॥

 

 

 

अध्यात्मज्ञाननित्यत्वं तत्त्वज्ञानार्थदर्शनम् । एतज्ज्ञानमिति प्रोक्तमज्ञानं यदतोऽन्यथा ॥ १३-१२॥ Bhaga. Gita. 13. 8-12)</blockquote>Shri Krishna lists that the characteristics mentioned (in these shlokas) constitute Jnana and those opposite to these are termed as Ajnana.<ref name=":6" />

 

# अदम्भित्वम् ॥ pridelessness

# इन्द्रियार्थेषु वैराग्यम् ॥ desirelessness in the sense pleasures

# अनहङ्कारः ॥ without ego

# जन्ममृत्युजराव्याधिदुःखदोषानुदर्शनम् ॥ remembering the problems of birth, death, old age, disease, and miseries that go with the physical body (to motivate oneself to think about the Atman)

# पुत्रदारगृहादिषु अनभिष्वङ्गः ॥ without fondness towards son, wife, or home etc.  

# नित्यं च समचित्तत्वमिष्टानिष्टोपपत्तिषु ॥ constancy in a balanced manas or citta (or mind) or having equanimity of the mind in attainment of favorable or unfavorable consequences

# अध्यात्मज्ञाननित्यत्वम् ॥ Constant dwelling on the knowledge pertaining to the Self

# तत्त्वज्ञानार्थदर्शनम् ॥ Contemplation (on the goal) for the attainment of knowledge of the truth

 

==== Bhakti Marga ====

== Sadhana in Sampradayas ==

== Sadhana in Sampradayas ==

The different systems of philosophy have prescribed different means for attainment of spiritual perfection and these vary sometimes from person to person according to their mental  and spiritual attainments. The different schools of Vedanta have expounded the philosophy of Sadhana in their own characteristic way and prescribed either Action (Karma-marga) or Knowledge (Jnana-marga), or Devotion, the self-surrender (Bhakti-marga) as the case may be, as the means for perfection.<ref name=":2" />

The different systems of philosophy have prescribed different means for attainment of spiritual perfection and these vary sometimes from person to person according to their mental  and spiritual attainments. The different schools of Vedanta have expounded the philosophy of Sadhana in their own characteristic way and prescribed either Action (Karma-marga) or Knowledge (Jnana-marga), or Devotion, the self-surrender (Bhakti-marga) as the case may be, as the means for perfection.<ref name=":2" />