Difference between revisions of "Rigveda (ऋग्वेदः)"

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{{ToBeEdited}}The Rigveda is the oldest of the Vedas. All the other Vedas are based upon it and consist to a large degree of various mantras from it. It consists of about thousand richas of different seers, each sukta averaging around ten mantras. That the Rig Veda is the oldest book in Sanskrit or any language is widely accepted by the followers of Sanatana Dharma. Its date of composition is not definite and the Vedic period is a topic of debate among many scholars. As such it is not in the scope of this article.  
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The Rigveda is the oldest of the Vedas. All the other Vedas are based upon it and consist to a large degree of various mantras from it. It consists of about a thousand richas (name of the Rigvedic mantras) of different seers, arranged in suktas having an average of around ten mantras. That the Rig Veda is the oldest book in Sanskrit or any language is widely accepted by the followers of Sanatana Dharma. Its date of composition is not definite and the Vedic time period is a topic of debate among many scholars. As such it is not in the scope of this article.  
  
 
Primarily the Rigveda is a treasure trove of stuti (a praise, a prayer, invocation) offered to different devatas by various rshis. It consists of respectful thoughts, praises of deeds of various deities in the form of mantras.  
 
Primarily the Rigveda is a treasure trove of stuti (a praise, a prayer, invocation) offered to different devatas by various rshis. It consists of respectful thoughts, praises of deeds of various deities in the form of mantras.  
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== ऋचां क्रमविन्यासः ॥ Arrangement of Rks (Mantras) ==
 
== ऋचां क्रमविन्यासः ॥ Arrangement of Rks (Mantras) ==
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{{Main|Veda Vargeekarana (वेदवर्गीकरणम्)}}
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Several rks make a sukta and several suktas form a Mandala. Sukta is nothing by the utterance of a seer expressing a complete sense. It contains the meaning of the subject in its complete form.
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There are many versions about the total number of richa-s and suktas in the Rgveda. Both ancient and modern scholars have put forth explanations about the differences in shakas of Rgveda. These differences are primarily due to the variations of the same richa-s during usage (प्रयोगकाल) and study times (अध्ययन-काल). Some richa-s have 4 padas during study but only two padas (द्विपदाः) during usage of the mantra.  
 
There are many versions about the total number of richa-s and suktas in the Rgveda. Both ancient and modern scholars have put forth explanations about the differences in shakas of Rgveda. These differences are primarily due to the variations of the same richa-s during usage (प्रयोगकाल) and study times (अध्ययन-काल). Some richa-s have 4 padas during study but only two padas (द्विपदाः) during usage of the mantra.  
  
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Each mantra of the Rgveda is associated with a Rshi, a Chandas, and a Devata.<blockquote>अथ ऋषयः ॥१॥ यस्य वाक्यं स ऋषिः ॥४॥ या तेनोच्यते सा देवता ॥५॥ यदक्षरपरिमाणं तच्छंदः ॥६॥ तिस्त्र एव देवता: क्षित्यंतरिक्षद्युस्थाना, अग्निर्वायुः सूर्य इति ॥८॥ (Rig. Ved. Katy. Sarv. 2.3)<ref>''Rgveda Samhita, Katyayana Sarvanukramanika'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 809)</ref></blockquote>Mantras were revealed by mantra-drstha rshis. The subject matter of a mantra is the devata. The number of aksharas (syllables) in a mantra is given by the chandas. It has a definite number of syllables. There are three types of devatas belonging to kshiti (earth), antariksha, and dyu places of Agni, Vayu and Surya respectively. The list of rshis who revealed the mantras are given below in the Mandala krama table.  Apart from them twenty-four mantra-drashta rshikas are also mentioned in the Rgveda. <blockquote>गोधा धोषा विश्ववाराऽपालोपनिषन्निषत् ॥ ब्रह्मजाया जुहूर्नामागस्त्यस्य स्वसादितिः ॥ इद्राणी चंद्रमाता च सरमा रोमशोर्वशी ॥ लोपामुद्रा च नद्यश्च यमी नारी च शश्वती। श्रीर्लाक्षा सार्पराज्ञी वाक् श्रद्धा मेधा च दक्षिणा ॥ रात्री सूर्या च सावित्री ब्रह्मवादिभ्य ईरिताः॥ (Rig. Ved. Shau. Anuk)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>Godha (गोधा), Ghosha (धोषा), Vishvavaara (विश्ववारा), Apaala (अपाला), Juhu (जुहू), Agastyasvasaa (अगस्त्यस्वसा), Aditi (अदिति), Indrani (इद्राणी), Sarama (सरमा), Romashaa (रोमशा), Urvashi (ऊर्वशी), Lopamudra (लोपामुद्रा), Nadi (नदी), Yami (यमी), Shashvati (शश्वती), Saarparaajni (सार्पराज्ञी), Vaak (वाक्), Shraddha (श्रद्धा), Dakshina (दक्षिणा), Savitri (सावित्री) are the brahmavadinis who contributed towards the mantras of the Rigveda.
 
Each mantra of the Rgveda is associated with a Rshi, a Chandas, and a Devata.<blockquote>अथ ऋषयः ॥१॥ यस्य वाक्यं स ऋषिः ॥४॥ या तेनोच्यते सा देवता ॥५॥ यदक्षरपरिमाणं तच्छंदः ॥६॥ तिस्त्र एव देवता: क्षित्यंतरिक्षद्युस्थाना, अग्निर्वायुः सूर्य इति ॥८॥ (Rig. Ved. Katy. Sarv. 2.3)<ref>''Rgveda Samhita, Katyayana Sarvanukramanika'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 809)</ref></blockquote>Mantras were revealed by mantra-drstha rshis. The subject matter of a mantra is the devata. The number of aksharas (syllables) in a mantra is given by the chandas. It has a definite number of syllables. There are three types of devatas belonging to kshiti (earth), antariksha, and dyu places of Agni, Vayu and Surya respectively. The list of rshis who revealed the mantras are given below in the Mandala krama table.  Apart from them twenty-four mantra-drashta rshikas are also mentioned in the Rgveda. <blockquote>गोधा धोषा विश्ववाराऽपालोपनिषन्निषत् ॥ ब्रह्मजाया जुहूर्नामागस्त्यस्य स्वसादितिः ॥ इद्राणी चंद्रमाता च सरमा रोमशोर्वशी ॥ लोपामुद्रा च नद्यश्च यमी नारी च शश्वती। श्रीर्लाक्षा सार्पराज्ञी वाक् श्रद्धा मेधा च दक्षिणा ॥ रात्री सूर्या च सावित्री ब्रह्मवादिभ्य ईरिताः॥ (Rig. Ved. Shau. Anuk)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>Godha (गोधा), Ghosha (धोषा), Vishvavaara (विश्ववारा), Apaala (अपाला), Juhu (जुहू), Agastyasvasaa (अगस्त्यस्वसा), Aditi (अदिति), Indrani (इद्राणी), Sarama (सरमा), Romashaa (रोमशा), Urvashi (ऊर्वशी), Lopamudra (लोपामुद्रा), Nadi (नदी), Yami (यमी), Shashvati (शश्वती), Saarparaajni (सार्पराज्ञी), Vaak (वाक्), Shraddha (श्रद्धा), Dakshina (दक्षिणा), Savitri (सावित्री) are the brahmavadinis who contributed towards the mantras of the Rigveda.
=== Chandas ===
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=== छन्दस् ॥ Chandas ===
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{{Main|Vaidika Chandas (वैदिक छन्दस्)}}
 
As mentioned in the previous sections, Rks are those mantras which are set in a shloka format (Padyatmaka) having a definite number of syllables in each pada of the mantra. Thus, they are said to be bound by the rules of Chandas. In the Rgveda although 20 different metres have been used, seven of them were used extensively. They are Gayatri (24 aksharas) Ushnik (28 aksharas) Anushtup (32 aksharas) Brhati (36 aksharas) Pankti (40 aksharas) Trishtup (44 aksharas) and Jagati (48 aksharas).
 
As mentioned in the previous sections, Rks are those mantras which are set in a shloka format (Padyatmaka) having a definite number of syllables in each pada of the mantra. Thus, they are said to be bound by the rules of Chandas. In the Rgveda although 20 different metres have been used, seven of them were used extensively. They are Gayatri (24 aksharas) Ushnik (28 aksharas) Anushtup (32 aksharas) Brhati (36 aksharas) Pankti (40 aksharas) Trishtup (44 aksharas) and Jagati (48 aksharas).
  
 
Of these kinds of chandas, four of them have been used in a large number of mantras. They are Gayatri, Anushtup, Trishtup and Jagati  used in about 80% of the mantras. The other metres apart from these seven, include Atijagati (52 aksharas), Shakvari (56 aksharas) etc.  
 
Of these kinds of chandas, four of them have been used in a large number of mantras. They are Gayatri, Anushtup, Trishtup and Jagati  used in about 80% of the mantras. The other metres apart from these seven, include Atijagati (52 aksharas), Shakvari (56 aksharas) etc.  
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=== देवता ॥ Deity ===
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{{Main|Rigveda Devatas (ऋग्वेदे देवताविचारः)}}
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According to Riksarvanukramani, a devata is defined as 'या स्तूयते सा देवता, येन स्तूयते स ऋषिः।' It means one who performs a stuti is a Rshi and to whom it is intended is a devata.<ref name=":32">Vedom mein devata tattva. Ved-katha Kalyan Ank, Gorakhpur: Gita Press (Pages 317-323)</ref>
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In Siddhanta koumudi, term 'devata' is described as having two characteristics. In the explanation for the sutra साऽस्य देवता' (Sidd. Koum. 4.2.24) we find the following
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# त्यज्यमानद्रव्ये उद्देश्यविशेषो देवता। which means to whom the ajya and havishya dravya are offered, they are devatas. This definition is as per Shrauta sutras. This is applicable in yajnas only.
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# मन्त्रस्तुत्या च। which means that one who is praised (invoked) by using mantras is a devata. This definition as per Nirukta is widely used to explain the term devata.<ref name=":32" />
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Thus, in general, a devata in the Vedic terms is defined as one to whom a stuti is performed, be it animate or inanimate. According to mantra-padadyanukramanika, 272 devatas are listed. In this list we have stutis for dana, for condemnation of gambling, and for social activities like marriage; all such materialistic matters are also treated as devatas. It should be noted that Yaska and others have determined the devata in such situations based on certain criteria. A devata is not defined simply based on fact that stuti is performed for them, they should have the capability to fulfil the wish of one who performed the stuti. This aspect is discussed in Nirukta as <ref name=":32" /><blockquote>यत्काम ऋषिर्यस्यां देवतायामार्थपत्यमिच्छन् स्तुतिं प्रयुङ्क्ते तदैवतः स मन्त्रो भवति' (निरुक्त ७।१।१)।</blockquote>To summarize this, it can be said that when a rshi utters a mantra with an intent to please a devata who can grant him a particular wish, that mantra will have that deity as the mantra-devata. That devata has an unparalleled power to fulfil the mentioned wish. In this way, the definition of devata is<blockquote>अभीष्टसिद्धिहेतुदिव्यशक्तिसम्पन्नत्वे सति मन्त्रस्तुत्यत्वम्। </blockquote>There is ample discussion about the number of deities given in Rigveda.
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=== मण्डलक्रमः ॥ Mandala krama ===
 
=== मण्डलक्रमः ॥ Mandala krama ===
The Rgveda samhita has 10552 mantras, grouped into 1017 suktas collected in ten mandalas of unequal length given by various rshis.<ref name=":2" /> In the Mandala krama it is arranged into 10 mandalas, 1017 suktas and 10552<ref name=":2" /> or 10580 (as given in Shaunaka's Anuvakaanukramani) mantras, and 153826 words<ref name=":5">''Rgveda Samhita, Shaunaka Anukramanika'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 828)</ref>.<blockquote>ऋचां दश सहस्राणि ऋचां पञ्च शतानि च । ऋचामशीतिः पादश्च पारणं संप्रकीर्तितम् ॥ (अनुवाकानुक्रमणी, 43)</blockquote>Each sukta in a mandala is a collection of mantras. The number of mantras in a sukta are highly variable. Given below are the mandalas, suktas, the number of mantras and the mantra-drashta rshis therein.<ref name=":0">''Rgveda Samhita'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 767)</ref><ref name=":6">Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 44-47)</ref>
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The Rgveda samhita has 10552 mantras, grouped into 1017 suktas collected in ten mandalas of unequal length given by various rshis.<ref name=":2" /> In the Mandala krama it is arranged into 10 mandalas, 1017 suktas and 10552<ref name=":2" /> or 10580 (as given in Shaunaka's Anuvakaanukramani) mantras, and 153826 words<ref name=":5">''Rgveda Samhita, Shaunaka Anukramanika'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 828)</ref>.<blockquote>ऋचां दश सहस्राणि ऋचां पञ्च शतानि च । ऋचामशीतिः पादश्च पारणं संप्रकीर्तितम् ॥ (अनुवाकानुक्रमणी, 43)</blockquote>Each sukta in a mandala is a collection of mantras. The number of mantras in a sukta are highly variable. Given below are the mandalas, suktas, the number of mantras and the mantra-drashta rshis therein.<ref name=":0">''Rgveda Samhita'' (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 767)</ref><ref name=":6">Dvivedi, Kapil Dev. (2000) ''Vaidika Sahitya evam Samskrti (Vedic Literature and Culture).'' Varanasi: Vishvavidyalaya Prakashan. (Pages 44-61)</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable"
 
{| class="wikitable"
 
!Mandalas
 
!Mandalas
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!
 
!
 
|}
 
|}
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Some important points about the arrangement of the mantras are as follows.<ref name=":6" />
 
* First and tenth mandalas exactly have 191 suktas. They are said to be more recent as compared to other mandalas. Analysis of the modernity of the language and chandas used, and invocations to new devatas, along with new darshanika concepts forms the basis to say that of all the mandalas the tenth mandala is the most recent having new mantras.
 
* First and tenth mandalas exactly have 191 suktas. They are said to be more recent as compared to other mandalas. Analysis of the modernity of the language and chandas used, and invocations to new devatas, along with new darshanika concepts forms the basis to say that of all the mandalas the tenth mandala is the most recent having new mantras.
 
* वंशमण्डल - Second to eight mandalas have complete unity in authorship. Mandalas second to sixth are have rshis Grtsamada, Vishvamitra, Vaamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, respectively and their families as the mantra-drashtas. The seventh mandala is given entirely by Vasishta. The eight mandala is predominantly given by rshis Kanva and Angiras.
 
* वंशमण्डल - Second to eight mandalas have complete unity in authorship. Mandalas second to sixth are have rshis Grtsamada, Vishvamitra, Vaamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, respectively and their families as the mantra-drashtas. The seventh mandala is given entirely by Vasishta. The eight mandala is predominantly given by rshis Kanva and Angiras.
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* Except in the eighth and ninth mandalas, everywhere the suktas to Agni are placed first, then those of Indra followed by those addressed to other deities are seen.
 
* Except in the eighth and ninth mandalas, everywhere the suktas to Agni are placed first, then those of Indra followed by those addressed to other deities are seen.
 
* Simple chandas, having three or four lines of eight, eleven and twelve syllables as well as some complicated chandas are seen in Rigveda.  
 
* Simple chandas, having three or four lines of eight, eleven and twelve syllables as well as some complicated chandas are seen in Rigveda.  
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There are some criteria on which the arrangement of mantras is based on. They are as follows.<ref name=":6" /> 
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# The suktas and mantras associated with rshi-families (ऋषि-परिवार) are first collected and grouped. Thus we see the vamsha-mandalas 2 to 7 are compiled first. They have only one rshi-family as the mantra-drashtas. The eighth mandala has rshis of two families as mantra-drashtas. 
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# The mantras revealed by one rshi are placed in one place to a great extent. 
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# Arrangement is organized such that there is unity of the subject matter. 
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# The subject matter about Soma (Pavamana Soma) is large hence the mantras and suktas have been compiled together even if compiled by different rshis. 
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# In arranging the suktas, the following order has been followed - Agni, Indra, Vishvedevas, Maruts, Ashvini devatas, Mitravaruna etc. 
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# The order of Chandas appears to be as follows - Gayatri, Trishtup, Jagati, Anushtup, and Pankti. These chandas have been used in the Rigveda. 
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# After this arrangement, the rshi families which have been left over are covered in the beginning or the end of the text. Additional attention has been given to place the suktas or mantras of those rshi-families which are greater in number, in the Mandala 1. Moreover, the number of suktas in Mandalas 1 and 10 have same number of suktas (192). 
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# Mandala 1 has the following rshis or their family members - 
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## Suktas 1 - 11: Madhu-chandas 
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## Suktas 12 - 23: Medhatithi-kanva 
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## Suktas 31 to 35: Hiranyasthupa Angirasa 
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## Suktas 36 - 50: Kanva or his family members 
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## Suktas 51 - 57: Savya Angirasa 
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## Suktas 58 - 64 and 74 - 93: Gautama or his family members 
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## Suktas 94 - 114: Kutsa Angirasa 
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## Suktas 116 - 126 and 140 - 164: Deerghatamas and his family members 
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## Suktas 165 - 191: Agasthya 
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# The suktas having less number of mantras have been placed at the end of the text. Hence in Mandala ten we find many rshis. Interspersed we find many suktas given by Rshikas (Brahmavadinis)<ref name=":6" />
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The internal arrangement within a mandala places the mantras given by the father (rshi) first and followed by those given by the son. However, in a few cases the mantras given by the son are arranged earlier than the sukta of the father, because the son had given more suktas than the father.   
 
The internal arrangement within a mandala places the mantras given by the father (rshi) first and followed by those given by the son. However, in a few cases the mantras given by the son are arranged earlier than the sukta of the father, because the son had given more suktas than the father.   
  
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The tenth mandala includes mantras of miscellaneous character that covers a wide range of topics from cosmology, philosophical speculations,  burial rites, samvada suktas, weddings to spells and incantations.  
 
The tenth mandala includes mantras of miscellaneous character that covers a wide range of topics from cosmology, philosophical speculations,  burial rites, samvada suktas, weddings to spells and incantations.  
  
Thus, we have many topics discussed in the Rgveda, however, some are debated in the recent centuries. One such topic is the geographical point concerning Bharatavarsha that is surrounded by four oceans or very large water bodies. The other being the river Sarasvati. The presence of four seas has been clearly mentioned only in the Bharatiya vaidika sahitya and rarely discussed in other ancient world literatures. Many scholars, both western and the traditional scholars have given their perspectives interpreting those Rgvedic mantras relating them to the "Aryan settlements" along the banks of the rivers in the northwestern region of India. With the myth of the Aryan Invasion debunked, we see much research evolving lately regarding the geographic aspects given in the Rgveda.<ref name=":7">Das, A. C. (1920) ''Rgvedic India, Cultural History of India as depicted in the Rgveda.'' New Delhi: Cosmo Publications (Page 10 - )</ref>  
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Thus, we have many topics discussed in the Rgveda, however, some are debated in the recent centuries. One such topic is the geographical point concerning Bharatavarsha that is surrounded by four oceans or very large water bodies. The other being the existence of river Sarasvati. The presence of four seas has been clearly mentioned only in the Bharatiya vaidika sahitya and rarely discussed in other ancient world literatures. Many scholars, both western and the traditional scholars have given their perspectives interpreting those Rgvedic mantras relating them to the "Aryan settlements" along the banks of the rivers in the northwestern region of India. With the myth of the Aryan Invasion debunked, we see new research evolving lately regarding the [[Geographical Aspects in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदोक्त भौगोलिकविषयाः)|geographic aspects given in the Rigveda]].<ref name=":7">Das, A. C. (1920) ''Rgvedic India, Cultural History of India as depicted in the Rgveda.'' New Delhi: Cosmo Publications (Page 10 - )</ref>
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Thus we find interesting discussions about the astronomical, [[Geographical Aspects in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदोक्त भौगोलिकविषयाः)|geographical]], and geological aspects of importance along with description of nature, [[Socio-economic Aspects of Rg Veda (ऋग्वेदे सामाजिक-आर्थिक-विषयाश्च)|socio-economic aspects]] and darshanik aspects that are valid in the present day society.
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=== Astronomical aspects ===
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In the Aitareya Brahmana (3.44) we find the concept that Sun (Surya) never raises or sets but it only flips at the end of daylight and returns with the bright side up on the next day. On reaching the end of the day, the sun flips such that the dark night side faces us. This concept was agreeable in the Rgveda suktas also (1.115.4 and 5.81.4). And that the earth was circular like a discus was known to the people in those times.<ref name=":1" />
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=== Geological aspects ===
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According to Dr. Kapil Dev Dwivedi<ref name=":3">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004 Second Edition) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 283-294)</ref> many interesting geological aspects are revealed during the study of Rgveda. It was long known to ancient people that the '''earth has 7 strata''' (Rgveda 1.22.16), and that the movements within both the earth and in the paramanus (atoms) are regulated by Vishnu. 
  
=== चतुःसमुद्राः ॥ Four seas ===
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Rgveda (10.1.6) states that the '''core of the earth is filled with Agni''' covered by a brilliant cloak. <blockquote>स तु वस्राण्यध पेशनानि वसानो अग्निर्नाभा पृथिव्याः ॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.1.6)</blockquote>The concept of fire and its tejas (तेजोमय वस्त्र) the brilliant cloak or garment is expressed in many mantras. Yajurveda also states that prthvi or earth is the center (yoni) of agni and it is due to this central Agni that causes the movement of the earth. Atharvaveda states that Agni is present in the Earth, अग्निवासाः पृथ्विवी (Atha. Veda. 12.1.21) and hence prthvi is called Agnivaasas (अग्निवासस्). That the '''rivers and ocean waters contain Agni''' is also expressed in the Rgveda. Agni is present in all living beings and the same is said to spread into the waters of rivers and oceans. <blockquote>यो अग्निः सप्तमानुषाः श्रितो विश्वेषु सिन्धुषु ॥ (Rg. Veda. 8.39.8)</blockquote>In the above mantra Sindhu (सिन्धु) indicates both the rivers and oceans. It is said that Agni exists in the waters and it is well known that by the '''churning of the river water electricity is generated'''. Rigveda clearly mentions the '''presence of Ratnas (gems) and treasures''' of gold etc which are the cause of prosperity, in the earth. <blockquote>रियं त इन्द्र पृथिवी बिभर्ति ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.55.22) पुरू वसूनि पृथिवी बिभर्ति ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.51.5)</blockquote>
It is known that the present peninsular Indian subcontinent is surrounded by three seas (Bay of Bengal, Indian Ocean and the Arabian sea in the present terms). In many mantras of Rgveda there is a mention about "'''two seas (उभी समुद्रौ)'''" namely the 'पूर्व (purva)' which refers to the Bay of Bengal and 'पर (para)' samudra refers to Arabian sea (Rigveda 10.136.5). It is important to note that Rgvedic texts mention about the presence of a fourth sea in the northern region of India below the Himalayas.<blockquote>रायः समुद्राँश्चतुरोऽस्मभ्यं सोम विश्वत: । आ पवस्व सहस्रिण: ॥६॥ (Rg. Veda 9.33.6)
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=== Nature in Rgveda ===
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The main part of Rigveda belongs to suktas related to nature and natural forces. The Vedic deities are explained in different ways by the scholars of India and West, but speaking generally, the suktas addressed to deities (Devata) are under the influence of the most impressive phenomenon of nature and its aspects. The word Devata means divine, divinity which is bright, strong, donor, and powerful. In these suktas we find prayers for certain natural elements such as air, water, earth, sun, rain, dawn etc. The glorious brightness of the sun, the blaze of the sacrificial fire, the sweep of the rain-storm across the skies, the recurrence of the dawn, the steady currents of the winds, the violence of the tropical storm and other such natural energies, fundamental activities or aspects are glorified and personified as divinities (Devata).
  
स्वायुधं स्ववसं सुनीथं । चतुःसमुद्रं धरुणं रयीणाम् ॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.47.2)
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The interaction with nature resulted in appreciation and prayer but, indeed, after a good deal of observation. Attributes assigned to deities fit in their natural forms and activities, as Soma is green, fire is bright, air is fast moving and sun is dispenser of darkness. The characteristics of these forces described in the mantras prove that Vedic seers were masters of natural science. All powers, aspects or activities of nature are generally regarded as deities because they are helpful, beneficial and essential for our life. Rivers, mountains, earth, air, water, plants, trees, forest, fire, rain, cloud, Sun, Moon etc, all are deities in Vedic mythology. In Rigveda the names of major deities are, such as Agni, Indra, Vayu, Earth, Soma, Varuna, Vishnu, Aditya, Usha, Aditi, Parjanya, etc. They are indeed the natural instruments of wealth - the inner earth crust, Surya and the other grahas, medicinal plants, oceans and rivers, water bodies such as waterfalls and forests.<blockquote>इन्द्राय द्याव ओषधीरुतापो रियं रक्षन्ति जीरयो वनानि ॥ (Rig. Veda. 3.51.5)</blockquote>
  
वात॒स्याश्वो॑ वा॒योः सखाथो॑ दे॒वेषि॑तो॒ मुनि॑: । उ॒भौ स॑मु॒द्रावा क्षे॑ति॒ यश्च॒ पूर्व॑ उ॒ताप॑रः ॥५॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.136.5)</blockquote>The Muni referred to here is identified with Keshi or Sun whose rays are like the golden hairs of an ascetic. The Sun is also compared to a horse in the Rgveda. Keshi or Sun dwells both in the Eastern and Western seas, because he is seen to rise from the Eastern sea and sink down into the Western sea. Now this Eastern sea could be none other than the sea that washed the eastern shores of Sapta Sindhu. It is over this sea that the Ashvini devatas preceded and heralded the Dawn. Further it was from the depth of these waters that the Sun was seen, from the shores of Sapta Sindhu, to emerge and ascend the sky (Rg. Veda. 3.55.1).<ref name=":7" /> Of these four seas, the Rgveda mentions about two, the 'पूर्व (purva)' and 'अपर (apara)' samudras. The Purva (or अवर-Avara) samudra also called as Arvavat (अर्वावत्) is where the sunrises and the Apara (or पर - Para) samudra also called as Paraavat (परावत्) is where the sun sets. The Arabian sea is the Paraavat sea where the Sindhu and its tributaries drain into. It however, ran up the present lower valley of the Indus along the foot of the Western Range, and covered a large portion of the present province of Sindh. However, scholars opine that the Purva (Apara or Arvaavat) sea is not the same as the Bay of Bengal as this bay is very far from where the Saptasindhu rivers were flowing. It has been proposed that land areas that are now known to be Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, i.e., the gangetic plains were we find the rivers Ganga and Yamuna, were once areas of a sea (in the Pleistocene era) which got filled with the sands brought down by the rivers and became plains.<ref name=":4" /> The third sea, is discussed separately under the '''Sarasvati river''' given under the heading [[Rivers in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे नदीनां विवेचनम्)|Rivers in Rigveda]].<ref name=":02">S. K. Acharya, Kunal Gosh, and Amal Kar (2020) ''Saraswati: The River par Excellence.'' Kolkata: The Asiatic Society (Pages 217-234)</ref> Ancient Indians were explorers; thus shipping, marine travels, and trade-routes were well established. Many mantras are mentioned as reference for the Rgvedic merchants who navigated the four seas in quest of wealth.  Geological evidence goes on to show that there were actually three seas on the three sides of Sapta Sindhu, i.e., the Eastern, the Western and the Southern and the fourth sea logically must have been somewhere on the north beyond the Himalayas. There is a mention that a deep trough (sea) did exist at the foot of the Himalayan range in ancient geological times as per Mr. Wadia (in his Geology of India book). This trough or sea lasted through long ages during which it was gradually filled up with alluvium into which were embedded the remains of a rich varied fauna "of herbivores, carnivores, rodents and of primates, the highest order of the mammals," brought down by the rivers and streams.<blockquote>ये अ॑स्या आ॒चर॑णेषु दध्रि॒रे स॑मु॒द्रे न श्र॑व॒स्यव॑: ॥३॥ (Rg. Veda. 1.48.3)<ref>Rgveda ([https://vedicheritage.gov.in/samhitas/rigveda/shakala-samhita/rigveda-shakala-samhitas-mandal-01-sukta-048/ Mandala 1 Sukta 48])</ref></blockquote>According to Dr. A. C. Das, geological evidence proves that such a sea did actually exist in ancient times, stretching from below the highlands of modern Turkestan towards Siberia on one side, and from the confines of Mongolia to the Black Sea, on the other, covering an immense area. This sea disappeared in comparatively recent geological times, leaving the Black Sea, the Sea of Aral, Lake Balkash, and an extensive depression low, dry and converted into steppes, as its remnants. The Black Sea was not at that time connected with the Mediterranean, and its western shores formed the Isthmus of Bosphorus linking Europe with Asia. On the confines of East Turkestan also there was in ancient times another immense Asiatic Mediterranean Sea, of which Lake Lobnor is the remnant. These stern geological facts are corroborated in Rgvedic mantras. We can see the effects of climate change reflected in the mantras and the disappearance of one of the four seas around the Sapta Sindhu, and the upheaval of a vast tract of arid desert in the South. Dr. Das's discussion about various geological evidences <blockquote>''"clearly proved the existence of the four seas mentioned in the Rgveda, round about the region, inhabited by the ancient Aryans, which included Sapta-sindhu on the south, Bactriana and Eastern Turkestan on the north, Gandhara on the west and the upper valleys of the Ganga and Yamuna on the east. The age of the Rgveda, therefore, must be as old as the existence of these four seas in ancient times."'' <ref name=":7" /></blockquote>It is time we delve deeper into the geological testimony which supports the vast antiquity of Rgveda stretching back to times immemorial.<ref name=":7" />
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=== Darshanika Tattva ===
  
=== Astronomical aspects ===
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In the 10th mandala of Rigveda we find many suktas portraying darshanika aspects of Bharatiya tattvajnana. In fact they are seen as the precursor to the siddhantas laid out in the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darshanas]]. The darshanika aspect, according to some scholars, also supports the fact that the 10th mandala is a more recent addition to the Rgveda as it is very contrary to the stuti-presentation given in the rest of the mandalas. The two most important references are the [[Nasadiya Sukta (नासदीयसूक्तम्)|Nasadiya Sukta]] and Purusha Sukta. Purusha sukta propounds Sarveshvara-vada (the all-pervading characteristic) which is considered as a modern thought process, a concept which discusses an all-permeating image or form (Saakara, aakruti) of the Supreme Self in the universe. According to some western scholars, spiritual development has the following course - Bahudevata-vada, Ekadevata-vada and Sarveshvara-vada. The oldest times witness worship of many deities, which later led to worship of one deity (Prajapati or Hiranyagarbha). This further led to development of faith in all-pervading deity, a more recent concept.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>अयँ लोक ऋग्वेदः। (Shad. Brah. 1.5)<ref>Shadvimsha Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4 Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>According to Shadvimsha Brahmana, Rgveda is said to be the bhuloka and Agni is the important devata. In the same Brahmana, Yajurveda is said to have Vayu as the important devata (of the Antariksha loka) while Surya is the important deity of Samaveda (of Dyuloka).<ref name=":6" /> Manusmrti reinforces this point as mentioned below. <blockquote>अग्निवायुरविभ्यस्तु त्र्यं ब्रह्म सनातनम। दुदोह यज्ञसिध्यर्थमृग्यजुः सामलक्षणम्॥ (Manu. Smrt. 1.13)<ref>Manu Smriti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>Meaning: From Agni, Vayu and Surya, was milked the eternal Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda respectively for the performance of yajnas. Rigveda involves the Vaktattva or speech aspects (including knowledge and contemplation), Yajurveda involves Manastattva or psychological aspects (personality, action, nature), and Samaveda includes Pranatattava or energy balance aspects (strength, cooperation). A coordination of the three tattavatas leads a person to attain Brahman. <blockquote>ब्रह्म वा ऋक् । अमृतं वा ऋक् । (Kous. Brah. 7.10) प्राणो वा ऋक्। (Jaim. Brah. 1.112)</blockquote>Above such references in various brahmanas portray the darshanik aspects (philosophical) of Rigveda. We find information about [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], [[Vak (वाक्)|Vak (Speech)]], Prana (energy), Amruta (eternity), Veerya (propagation) etc. Thus, we find the description about attaining Brahman, the shabda Brahman (vaktattva), Prana or the energy, means to attain Amaratva (eternity), and magnificence by practicing Brahmacharya.<ref name=":6" />
In the Aitareya Brahmana (3.44) we find the concept that Sun (Surya) never raises or sets but it only flips at the end of daylight and returns with the bright side up on the next day. On reaching the end of the day, the sun flips such that the dark night side faces us. This concept was agreeable in the Rgveda suktas also (1.115.4 and 5.81.4). And that the earth was circular like a discus was known to the people in those times.<ref name=":1" />  
 
  
=== Geology ===
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== Important Suktas of Different Kinds ==
According to Dr. Kapil Dev Dwivedi<ref name=":3">Dwivedi, Kapil Dev. (2004 Second Edition) ''Vedon mein Vijnana (Positive Sciences in the Vedas).'' Jnanpur (Bhadohi): Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad. (Pages 283-294)</ref> many interesting geological aspects are revealed during the study of Rgveda. It was long known to ancient people that the '''earth has 7 strata''' (Rgveda 1.22.16), and that the movements within both the earth and in the paramanus (atoms) are regulated by Vishnu.
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In the Rigveda we find Suktas of different kinds based on the subject matter. They include topics such as manovijnana (science of the mind or psychology) and bhashavijnana (science of language) along with srsthi-utpatti (the origin of creation), ayurveda (science of health), darshanika tattva (philosophy), adhyatmika tattva (spirituality) etc. Apart from topic based suktas, we have samvada suktas based on conversation between two characters (deities, rshis etc).<ref name=":6" /> The suktas are placed under the following heads.
  
Rgveda (10.1.6) states that the '''core of the earth is filled with Agni''' covered by a brilliant cloak. <blockquote>स तु वस्राण्यध पेशनानि वसानो अग्निर्नाभा पृथिव्याः ॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.1.6)</blockquote>The concept of fire and its tejas (तेजोमय वस्त्र) the brilliant cloak or garment is expressed in many mantras. Yajurveda also states that prthvi or earth is the center (yoni) of agni and it is due to this central Agni that causes the movement of the earth. Atharvaveda states that Agni is present in the Earth, अग्निवासाः पृथ्विवी (Atha. Veda. 12.1.21) and hence prthvi is called Agnivaasas (अग्निवासस्). That the '''rivers and ocean waters contain Agni''' is also expressed in the Rgveda. Agni is present in all living beings and the same is said to spread into the waters of rivers and oceans. <blockquote>यो अग्निः सप्तमानुषाः श्रितो विश्वेषु सिन्धुषु ॥ (Rg. Veda. 8.39.8)</blockquote>In the above mantra Sindhu (सिन्धु) indicates both the rivers and oceans. It is said that Agni exists in the waters and it is well known that by the '''churning of the river water electricity is generated'''. Rgveda clearly mentions the '''presence of Ratnas (gems) and treasures''' of gold etc which are the cause of prosperity, in the earth. <blockquote>रियं त इन्द्र पृथिवी बिभर्ति ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.55.22)
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(1) देवस्तुतिपरकसूक्त - Suktas primarily in praise and worship of devatas, example - Agni Sukta
  
पुरू वसूनि पृथिवी बिभर्ति ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.51.5)</blockquote>
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(2) दार्शनिक सूक्त - Suktas describing the philosophical tattvas, example - Purusha Sukta
=== Geographical Aspects in Rgveda  ===
 
The Rgveda is treated as the storehouse of recorded valuable geographical information. It contains references to places, rivers, mountains, forests and oceans. To put it in a nutshell, more or less pertains to the area in the northern belt from Uttar Pradesh and Bihar in the east to Afghanistan in the west, the easternmost river mentioned in the text being the Ganga, and the westernmost being the western tributaries of the Indus rivers.<ref>Talageri. Shrikant. G, (2000) The Rigveda - A Historical Analysis (Pages </ref>
 
  
==== Mountains ====
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(3) लौकिक सूक्त - Suktas describing the worldly affairs, example - Vivaha Sukta
Mountains are referred to using the terms, parvata, giri (Rg. Veda. 1.37.7) and adri (Rg. Veda. 8.88.3). Just as the oceans, mountains are also alluded to as treasure houses (Rg.Veda 10.69.6). Rgvedic mantras give us a detailed account of how the earth was once full of mountains that could "move" around and how Indra made them firm and immovable (2.12.1). Kanva samhita and Maitrayani samhita both support the puranic version that in the very remote past mountains had 'wings' and they could travel to any place they chose. Indra cut those wings off and protected the people on earth from loss of life and property. The factual basis is debated yet the legend has a significant place in many texts.<ref name=":4" />
 
  
In these texts there is a mention about 'Himavanta' (Himalayas) as the prominent mountain range of the region, however, their dimensions are not given.<ref>Deka, Barnali. (2015) Ph.D Thesis Title: ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/115225 A socio cultural study of the Rgvedasamhita]''. Gauhati University. (Chapter 5 : Geographical Information as recorded in the Rgvedasamhita)</ref>
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(4) संवाद सूक्त - Suktas where there is a conversation between two beings may or may not have an associated legend, example - Sarama Pani Samvada Sukta
  
* Described by the words "brhad parvat (बृहत् पर्वत्)", i.e., the huge mountain, the nature of the Himalayas is indicated; it is where Indra took on Sambara, the son of Kulitara (Rg.Veda. 4.30.14).
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(5) आख्यान सूक्त - Suktas which narrate a legend, example - Shyavashva Sukta
*
 
  
Rgveda (10.34.1) refers to a specific mountain peak called Moojavat on which grows the Somalata. In the Nirukta, it has been referred to as a mountain, while its location is known from the Atharva samhita. Atharva samhita (5.22) mentions that Moojavat is a mountain located in the far North-western region of Gandhaar or Balhik country. This mountain is verily the '''native habitat of Somalata hence it is called Moujavat''', from where it was brought for use in yajnas. सोम॑स्येव मौजव॒तस्य॑ भ॒क्षो..... (Rg. Veda. 10.34.1). As the people of those times moved to and settled in the eastern plains, bringing soma became difficult and commercial trade began. [[Mountains in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे पर्वतानां विवेचनम्)]] throw light on various aspects of geography.<ref name=":4" />  
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Important darshanika suktas found in the Rigveda include<ref name=":6" />
  
In the Taittriya Aranyaka (1.31) we find a mention of Krauncha, Mainaka, and Sudarshana parvatas. In the same Aranyaka (1.7) there is a clear mention of Mahameru. That these mountains are also rich in '''treasures (minerals and natural ores)''' is clearly mentioned in the Rigveda <blockquote>
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#[[Nasadiya Sukta (नासदीयसूक्तम्)]] - 10.129
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# [[Purusha Sukta (पुरुषसूक्तम्)]] - 10.10
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# [[Hiranyagarbha Sukta (हिरण्यगर्भसूक्तम्)]] - 1.121
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# Vak Sukta (वाक् सूक्तम्) - 10.125
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# Asya-vamiya Sukta - 1.164
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# Shraddha Sukta - 10.151
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Important laukika Suktas found in Rigveda include<ref name=":6" />
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# Sajnana Sukta - 10.191
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# Danastuti Sukta - 10.107 and 117
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# Aksha Sukta - 10.34
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# Vivaha Sukta - 10.85
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Important Akhyana suktas found in Rigveda include<ref name=":6" />
  
वसुमन्तं वि पर्रवतम् ॥ (Rg. Veda. 2.24.2)</blockquote>
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# Vishnu Sukta (Trivikrama) - 1.154
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# Soma Suryaa vivaha Sukta - 10.85
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# Shyavashva Sukta - 5.61
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# Manduka Sukta - 7.103
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# [[Indra and Vrtrasura (इन्द्रः वृत्रासुरः च)|Indra Vrtra Yuddha]] Sukta - 1.80 and 2.12
  
==== Oceans and Rivers ====
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Important Samvada suktas found in Rigveda include<ref name=":6" />
Rgveda offers good information about oceans and seas. People were well aware about the vast waterbodies and trade via the seas was prevalent.  The terms Samudra and Arnava (अर्णव) have been used for ocean or a sea. We also find references to sea travel using boats or ships (Rgveda 1.25.7) for whom the direction is given by Varuna (by his winds). Some important findings include the following 
 
* '''Thar Desert was once a sea (Rgveda 7.95.2):''' In the present day Rajasthan where a desert stands now, the ancient texts have indicated the presence of a sea in the same area.<ref name=":4">Pt. Upadhyaya, Baldev. (2012 Second Edition) ''Samskrit Vangmay ke Brihad Itihas, Vol 1, Veda.'' Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Sansthan. (Pages 515-531)</ref> 
 
* It is in these seas that treasure is said to be available, namely gems and precious stones (Rgveda 1.47.6, 7.6.7, 9.92.44 etc).<ref name=":3" /> 
 
* People had knowledge about the origin of '''pearls (मुक्ताः)''' the semi-precious stone, from the seas (Rg.Veda. 1.47.6)<ref name=":2" />
 
  
* That the '''huge waves in the seas''' are caused by the air circulation was mentioned in Rgveda (1.19.7 and 8, 1.119.4 etc). Other mantras describe that a hurricane can destroy the ships in the sea. 
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# [[Pururava Urvashi Samvada (पुरुरवा-ऊर्वशी संवादः)]] - 10.95
* Presence of n'''atural Gases in oceans''' is discussed in Rigveda (Rgveda 8.102.4)<ref name=":3" /> It is termed as पुरीष्य अग्निः। This is so called because it has the ability to light up and spreads across in various places of the ocean bed.
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# [[Yama Yami Samvada (यम यमि सम्वादः)|Yama Yami Samvada]] - 10.10
* '''Medicinal substances and food items''' from the oceans, rivers and mountains is well explained in this Veda (Rg. Veda. 8.20.25).<ref name=":3" />
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# [[Sarama Pani Samvada (सरमापणिसंवादः)|Sarama Pani Samvada]] - 10.108
* There are at least '''nineteen rivers''' mentioned in the Rg veda, with the Sarasvati and Indus rivers (along with it's tributaries) gaining a lot of attention. [[Rivers in Rigveda (ऋग्वेदे नदीनां विवेचनम्)]] drew a great attention in the past few centuries with the Sarasvati (सरस्वती), though long lost, has occupied the media but generally for the wrong reasons. Dr. Michel Danino meticulously summed up the issues and debates associated with Sarasvati backed with the latest research and archeological evidences.<ref name=":02" />
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# Vishvamitra Nadi Samvada - 3.33
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# Indra Marut Samvada - 1.165
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# Agasthya Lopamudra Samvada - 1.179
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# Vasishta Sudas Samvada - 7.83
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# Indra Indrani Vrshakapi Samvada - 10.86
  
==== Nature in Rgveda ====
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The Akhyana and Samvada suktas in the Rigveda are said to be the seed material of the later day Itihasa, Kavyas, Mahakavyas (poetics), and natakas (drama). The information found in seed form in the Rigveda is supported and elaborated, similar to a fruit-bearing tree, in the Brahmana and Aranyaka literature. In this way the Akhyana and Samvada suktas have  significant role in defining the Bharatiya Laukika Sahitya. The concepts found ground and developed further in the Itihasa and Purana literature. According to the traditional views, it is said that dramaturgy (the art of dramas) originated from the Vedas. Mahamuni Bharata the author of Natyashastra, describes that Brahma composed the "Natyaveda or Panchamaveda" as the essence of the four vedas upon request of the devatas. For this purpose, the essence of Pathya (including the Samvadas and anecdotes) was taken from the Rigveda, that of Sangeeta (music) from Samaveda, Abhinaya (action) from Yajurveda, and Rasa (aesthetics) from Atharvaveda.<ref name=":6" />
The main part of Rigveda belongs to suktas related to nature and natural forces. The Vedic deities are explained in different ways by the scholars of India and West, but speaking generally, the suktas addressed to deities (Devata) are under the influence of the most impressive phenomenon of nature and its aspects. The word Devata means divine, divinity which is bright, strong, donor, and powerful. In these suktas we find prayers for certain natural elements such as air, water, earth, sun, rain, dawn etc. The glorious brightness of the sun, the blaze of the sacrificial fire, the sweep of the rain-storm across the skies, the recurrence of the dawn, the steady currents of the winds, the violence of the tropical storm and other such natural energies, fundamental activities or aspects are glorified and personified as divinities (Devata).  
 
  
The interaction with nature resulted in appreciation and prayer but, indeed, after a good deal of observation. Attributes assigned to deities fit in their natural forms and activities, as Soma is green, fire is bright, air is fast moving and sun is dispenser of darkness. The characteristics of these forces described in the mantras prove that Vedic seers were masters of natural science. All powers, aspects or activities of nature are generally regarded as deities because they are helpful, beneficial and essential for our life. Rivers, mountains, earth, air, water, plants, trees, forest, fire, rain, cloud, Sun, Moon etc, all are deities in Vedic mythology. In Rigveda the names of major deities are, such as Agni, Indra, Vayu, Earth, Soma, Varuna, Vishnu, Aditya, Usha, Aditi, Parjanya, etc. They are indeed the natural instruments of wealth - the inner earth crust, Surya and the other grahas, medicinal plants, oceans and rivers, water bodies such as waterfalls and forests.<blockquote>इन्द्राय द्याव ओषधीरुतापो रियं रक्षन्ति जीरयो वनानि ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.51.5)</blockquote>
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== मंत्रार्थ प्रस्तुति शैली ॥ Presentation style of Mantra meaning ==
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There are many akhyanas or anecdotes in Rgveda. A few are famous and are found in Brahmana and other texts such as Brhaddevata.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":6" /> However, Akhyana style of explaining the purport of the mantras is one way of presenting the meaning of a mantra. Nirukta indicates that there are at least three ways of giving out the meaning of Rigveda mantras as follows<ref>Shastri, Jwalanth Kumar. (2009) ''Ved aur vedarth'' Rajasthan: Sri Ghudhmal Prahladkumar Arya Dharmarth Nyasa. (Pages 58-59)</ref>
  
=== Darshanika Tattva ===
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# '''आख्यान शैली ॥ Akhyana style of presentation''' - In the reference 10.10 of Nirukta, Yaska explains "ऋषेर्दृष्टार्थस्य प्रीतिर्भवत्याख्यानसंयुक्ता" which means that the rshis who are tattvadrashtas in a few instances express the meaning of their mantras in the Akhyana style. The meaning of the mantra is presented by embedding it in a creative story. While the mantras in the veda contain a part or section of the whole legend, Brahmanas, Brhaddevata or Sarvanukramanika usually contain the complete story. Indra sukta (Rigveda. 2.12) is one such example.
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# '''ऐतिहासिक शैली ॥ Aitihasika style of presentation''' - Yaska further uses the term "इत्यैतिहासिकाः" at the end his commentary for many mantras. It indicates that the meaning of the mantra is conveyed by the Aitihasika style of writing. For example, तत्को वृत्रः मेघ इति नैरुक्ताः, त्वष्ट्रोऽसुर इत्यैतिहासिकाः etc, meaning "Who is Vrtra, he is Megha as said by Nairuktakaras, he is Tvatshtra (son of Tvashta) an asura as said by the Aitihasikas (one who expound Itihasa)." Here we see that by the aitihasika style of presentation Vrtra is described as an asura and son of Tvashta.
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# '''नैरुक्त शैली ॥ Nairukta style of presentation''' - Here the meaning of the mantras are presented as per the directions of Niruktakaras, where words have to be interpreted grammatically, thus they become derived meanings. So according to Nairuktakaras, Vrtra does not refer to an asura and son of Tvashta but to वृणोतेर्वर्धतेवा where 'one that circles and grows' applies to Megha or clouds. Thus Vrtra also refers to a Cloud. The sense in which the root or dhatus (without the prakrti and pratyaya) are expressed is used to drive the derived meanings. In the same way, Vishvamitra refers to "Sarvamitra". In such style of presentation, no particular person is referred to but the person or things associated to a meaning so derived bear importance.
  
In the 10th mandala of Rgveda we find many suktas portraying darshanika aspects of Indian tattvajnana. In fact they are seen as the precursor to the siddhantas laid out in the [[Shad Darshanas (षड्दर्शनानि)|Shad Darshanas]]. The darshanika aspect, according to some scholars, also supports the fact that the 10th mandala is a more recent addition to the Rgveda as it is very contrary to the stuti-presentation given in the rest of the mandalas. The two most important references are the [[Nasadiya Sukta (नासदीयसूक्तम्)|Nasadiya Sukta]] and [[Purusha Sukta]]. Purusha sukta propounds Sarveshvara-vada (the all-pervading characteristic) which is considered as a modern thought process, a concept which discusses an all-permeating image or form (Saakara, aakruti) of the Supreme Self in the universe. According to some western scholars, spiritual development has the following course - Bahudevata-vada, Ekadevata-vada and Sarveshvara-vada. The oldest times witness worship of many deities, which later led to worship of one deity (Prajapati or Hiranyagarbha). This further led to development of faith in all-pervading deity, a more recent concept.<ref name=":2" /><blockquote>अयँ लोक ऋग्वेदः। (Shad. Brah. 1.5)<ref>Shadvimsha Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE/%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A1%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4 Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>According to Shadvimsha Brahmana, Rgveda is said to be the bhuloka and Agni is the important devata. In the same Brahmana, Yajurveda is said to have Vayu as the important devata (of the Antariksha loka) while Surya is the important deity of Samaveda (of Dyuloka).<ref name=":6" /> Manusmrti reinforces that <blockquote>अग्निवायुरविभ्यस्तु त्र्यं ब्रह्म सनातनम। दुदोह यज्ञसिध्यर्थमृग्यजुः सामलक्षणम्॥ (Manu. Smrt. 1.13)<ref>Manu Smriti ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1])</ref></blockquote>From Agni, Vayu and Surya, was milked the eternal Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda respectively for the performance of yajnas. Rgveda involves the Vaktattva or speech aspects (including knowledge and contemplation), Yajurveda involves Manastattva or psychological aspects (personality, action, nature), and Samaveda includes Pranatattava or energy balance aspects (strength, cooperation). A coordination of the three tattavatas leads a person to attain Brahman. <blockquote>ब्रह्म वा ऋक् । अमृतं वा ऋक् । (Kous. Brah. 7.10) प्राणो वा ऋक्। (Jaim. Brah. 1.112)</blockquote>Above such references in various brahmanas portray the darshanik aspects (philosophical) of Rgveda. We find information about [[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]], [[Vak (वाक्)|Vak (Speech)]], Prana (energy), Amruta (eternity), Veerya (propagation) etc. Thus, we find the description about attaining Brahman, the shabda Brahman (vaktattva), Prana or the energy, means to attain Amaratva (eternity), and magnificence by practicing Brahmacharya.<ref name=":6" />
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Niruktakara, Acharya Yaska alludes to Akhyanasamya (आख्यानसमयः), Aitihasika (ऐतिहासिकाः) and Naidanaa (नैदानाः) styles of presentation of a context. All the three styles only differ slightly. Acharya Vararuchi in his commentary on Nirukta clarifies as follows <ref name=":022322222">Shastri, Jwalanth Kumar. (2009) ''Ved aur vedarth'' Rajasthan: Sri Ghudhmal Prahladkumar Arya Dharmarth Nyasa. (Pages 257-258)</ref><blockquote>औपचारिको मन्त्रेष्वाख्यानसमय इति नैरुक्तानां सिद्धान्तः ।</blockquote>Meaning: Akhyanas (legends) and Itihasa (accounts of former events) described in the mantras are usually figurative or metaphorical according to Nairukta siddhanta.  
  
Apart from the darshanik aspects, we find many [[Socio-economic Aspects of Rg Veda (ऋग्वेदे सामाजिक-आर्थिक-विषयाश्च)]] that are relevant even in the present society.  
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On an in-depth exploration one finds that the description of an event is of three types - extraordinary (असम्भव), probable (सम्भवासम्भव) and possible (सम्भव). In the Vedic literature mostly we find extraordinary (चमत्कारकवाचक) and generic (जातिवाचक) usages for describing events. Here a person, river, city or place in particular (व्यक्तिवाचक) are used metaphorically and are used to convey an underlying natural, social, spiritual, or a philosophical message. However, in the Brahmana and Puranic literature we find descriptions which appear probable and possible, which is very rare in the Vedas. For example, the akhyana of Vishvamitra and Menaka is described in an extraordinary way in the Vedas. Elsewhere we find that Dushyanta and Shakuntala are described as normal human personalities but their progeny, Bharata is associated with Indra; both of them being extraordinary characters. In this state, calling Vishvamitra and Menaka (of the Vedas) as the ancestors of Dushyanta and Bharata (of the Puranas) creates a confusion in the minds of the reader. In the Vedic mantras, one does not find human-like description (मानुषीवर्णन) of Vishvamitra and Menaka, nor does vaidik Bharata (who approaches Indra) appear to have any relation with the laukika Bharata. Many misinterpretations arise as the storyline borrowed from the earlier literature gets digested with their new modifications in modern laukika sahitya. Thus a careful consideration of vaidika akhyanas is required to discern between the historical and poetic parts of the literature.<ref name=":022322222" />
  
 
== Pravachanakaras of Rgveda ==
 
== Pravachanakaras of Rgveda ==
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== References ==
 
== References ==
 
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[[Category:Rigveda]]

Latest revision as of 10:59, 1 April 2024

The Rigveda is the oldest of the Vedas. All the other Vedas are based upon it and consist to a large degree of various mantras from it. It consists of about a thousand richas (name of the Rigvedic mantras) of different seers, arranged in suktas having an average of around ten mantras. That the Rig Veda is the oldest book in Sanskrit or any language is widely accepted by the followers of Sanatana Dharma. Its date of composition is not definite and the Vedic time period is a topic of debate among many scholars. As such it is not in the scope of this article.

Primarily the Rigveda is a treasure trove of stuti (a praise, a prayer, invocation) offered to different devatas by various rshis. It consists of respectful thoughts, praises of deeds of various deities in the form of mantras.

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

The Rig Veda is the book of Mantras called Rks or Richa-s. It contains the oldest form of all the Sanskrit mantras. It is built around a science of sound which comprehends the meaning and power of each letter. Most aspects of Vedic science like the practice of yoga, meditation, mantra and Ayurveda can be found in the Rig Veda and still use many terms that come from it.

While originally several different versions or recensions of the Rig Veda were said to exist, only one remains. Its form has been structured in several different ways to guarantee its authenticity and proper preservation through time.

व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology of Rk

Rigveda is made up of mantras called as Rk (ऋक् also called as ऋचः - Rchas) according to Shabdakalpadhruma.[1]

ऋच्यन्ते स्तूयन्ते देवा अनया । (ऋच् + क्विप् ।) वेदविशेषः । ऋग्वेदः । इत्यमरः ॥

The (vaidik) devatas are offered worship and are prayed to using these Rk-s (ऋक्). Rcha means prarthana (to pray) or stuti (to praise), thus it is synonymous with praising and worshipping. Devatas are invoked using these mantras. Another name for Mantra is Rcha (ऋचः), but all mantras are not Rcha-s (ऋचः). The Purusha Sukta, in the famed Sahasra-sirsha (सहस्रशीर्षा) mantra, mentions that Rcha-s (ऋचः) were the first to arise from Parameshavara.

तस्माद्याज्ञात् सर्वहुतः ऋचः सामानि जज्ञिरे । छन्दांसि जज्ञिरे तस्माद्यजुस्तस्मादजायत । (Purusha Sukta)

A collection of Rchas is called the Rigveda Samhita. The term 'Samhita' implies a collection or group of. It was first studied by Shakala (mentioned also as Shakalya) and further by Baskala and four other (rshis).[2]

ऋचां समूह ऋग्वेदस्तमभ्यस्य प्रयत्नतः। पठितः शाकलेनादौ चतुर्मिस्तदनन्तरम्।। (Rk. Pratisakhya)

All the aspects about rigveda vargeekarana, the shakas involved and extant texts, the arrangement of the mandalas and ashtakas are given in the article Veda Vargeekarana.

ऋचां क्रमविन्यासः ॥ Arrangement of Rks (Mantras)

Several rks make a sukta and several suktas form a Mandala. Sukta is nothing by the utterance of a seer expressing a complete sense. It contains the meaning of the subject in its complete form.

There are many versions about the total number of richa-s and suktas in the Rgveda. Both ancient and modern scholars have put forth explanations about the differences in shakas of Rgveda. These differences are primarily due to the variations of the same richa-s during usage (प्रयोगकाल) and study times (अध्ययन-काल). Some richa-s have 4 padas during study but only two padas (द्विपदाः) during usage of the mantra.

In some texts, the valakhilya mantras, 80 of them at the end of the eighth mandala, are not taken into account along with the Rgveda mantras. Hence, after including the dvipada mantras and valakhilya mantras the total number of richa-s are given as 10552 in Katyayana's Rik-sarvanukramani text.[3]

Each mantra of the Rgveda is associated with a Rshi, a Chandas, and a Devata.

अथ ऋषयः ॥१॥ यस्य वाक्यं स ऋषिः ॥४॥ या तेनोच्यते सा देवता ॥५॥ यदक्षरपरिमाणं तच्छंदः ॥६॥ तिस्त्र एव देवता: क्षित्यंतरिक्षद्युस्थाना, अग्निर्वायुः सूर्य इति ॥८॥ (Rig. Ved. Katy. Sarv. 2.3)[4]

Mantras were revealed by mantra-drstha rshis. The subject matter of a mantra is the devata. The number of aksharas (syllables) in a mantra is given by the chandas. It has a definite number of syllables. There are three types of devatas belonging to kshiti (earth), antariksha, and dyu places of Agni, Vayu and Surya respectively. The list of rshis who revealed the mantras are given below in the Mandala krama table. Apart from them twenty-four mantra-drashta rshikas are also mentioned in the Rgveda.

गोधा धोषा विश्ववाराऽपालोपनिषन्निषत् ॥ ब्रह्मजाया जुहूर्नामागस्त्यस्य स्वसादितिः ॥ इद्राणी चंद्रमाता च सरमा रोमशोर्वशी ॥ लोपामुद्रा च नद्यश्च यमी नारी च शश्वती। श्रीर्लाक्षा सार्पराज्ञी वाक् श्रद्धा मेधा च दक्षिणा ॥ रात्री सूर्या च सावित्री ब्रह्मवादिभ्य ईरिताः॥ (Rig. Ved. Shau. Anuk)[5]

Godha (गोधा), Ghosha (धोषा), Vishvavaara (विश्ववारा), Apaala (अपाला), Juhu (जुहू), Agastyasvasaa (अगस्त्यस्वसा), Aditi (अदिति), Indrani (इद्राणी), Sarama (सरमा), Romashaa (रोमशा), Urvashi (ऊर्वशी), Lopamudra (लोपामुद्रा), Nadi (नदी), Yami (यमी), Shashvati (शश्वती), Saarparaajni (सार्पराज्ञी), Vaak (वाक्), Shraddha (श्रद्धा), Dakshina (दक्षिणा), Savitri (सावित्री) are the brahmavadinis who contributed towards the mantras of the Rigveda.

छन्दस् ॥ Chandas

As mentioned in the previous sections, Rks are those mantras which are set in a shloka format (Padyatmaka) having a definite number of syllables in each pada of the mantra. Thus, they are said to be bound by the rules of Chandas. In the Rgveda although 20 different metres have been used, seven of them were used extensively. They are Gayatri (24 aksharas) Ushnik (28 aksharas) Anushtup (32 aksharas) Brhati (36 aksharas) Pankti (40 aksharas) Trishtup (44 aksharas) and Jagati (48 aksharas).

Of these kinds of chandas, four of them have been used in a large number of mantras. They are Gayatri, Anushtup, Trishtup and Jagati used in about 80% of the mantras. The other metres apart from these seven, include Atijagati (52 aksharas), Shakvari (56 aksharas) etc.

देवता ॥ Deity

According to Riksarvanukramani, a devata is defined as 'या स्तूयते सा देवता, येन स्तूयते स ऋषिः।' It means one who performs a stuti is a Rshi and to whom it is intended is a devata.[6]

In Siddhanta koumudi, term 'devata' is described as having two characteristics. In the explanation for the sutra साऽस्य देवता' (Sidd. Koum. 4.2.24) we find the following

  1. त्यज्यमानद्रव्ये उद्देश्यविशेषो देवता। which means to whom the ajya and havishya dravya are offered, they are devatas. This definition is as per Shrauta sutras. This is applicable in yajnas only.
  2. मन्त्रस्तुत्या च। which means that one who is praised (invoked) by using mantras is a devata. This definition as per Nirukta is widely used to explain the term devata.[6]

Thus, in general, a devata in the Vedic terms is defined as one to whom a stuti is performed, be it animate or inanimate. According to mantra-padadyanukramanika, 272 devatas are listed. In this list we have stutis for dana, for condemnation of gambling, and for social activities like marriage; all such materialistic matters are also treated as devatas. It should be noted that Yaska and others have determined the devata in such situations based on certain criteria. A devata is not defined simply based on fact that stuti is performed for them, they should have the capability to fulfil the wish of one who performed the stuti. This aspect is discussed in Nirukta as [6]

यत्काम ऋषिर्यस्यां देवतायामार्थपत्यमिच्छन् स्तुतिं प्रयुङ्क्ते तदैवतः स मन्त्रो भवति' (निरुक्त ७।१।१)।

To summarize this, it can be said that when a rshi utters a mantra with an intent to please a devata who can grant him a particular wish, that mantra will have that deity as the mantra-devata. That devata has an unparalleled power to fulfil the mentioned wish. In this way, the definition of devata is

अभीष्टसिद्धिहेतुदिव्यशक्तिसम्पन्नत्वे सति मन्त्रस्तुत्यत्वम्।

There is ample discussion about the number of deities given in Rigveda.

मण्डलक्रमः ॥ Mandala krama

The Rgveda samhita has 10552 mantras, grouped into 1017 suktas collected in ten mandalas of unequal length given by various rshis.[3] In the Mandala krama it is arranged into 10 mandalas, 1017 suktas and 10552[3] or 10580 (as given in Shaunaka's Anuvakaanukramani) mantras, and 153826 words[5].

ऋचां दश सहस्राणि ऋचां पञ्च शतानि च । ऋचामशीतिः पादश्च पारणं संप्रकीर्तितम् ॥ (अनुवाकानुक्रमणी, 43)

Each sukta in a mandala is a collection of mantras. The number of mantras in a sukta are highly variable. Given below are the mandalas, suktas, the number of mantras and the mantra-drashta rshis therein.[7][8]

Mandalas Number of Suktas Number of Mantras Mantra Drashtas
Mandala 1 191 2006 शतर्चिनः (Shatarchina), Madhucchanda, Medhatithi, Deerghatama, Agastya, Gautama, Parashara etc
Mandala 2 43 429 गृत्समदः एवं उनके वंशज (Grtsamada and his lineage)
Mandala 3 62 627 विश्वामित्रः एवं उनके वंशज (Vishvamitra and his lineage)
Mandala 4 58 589 वामदेवः एवं उनके वंशज (Vamadeva and his lineage)
Mandala 5 87 727 अत्रिः एवं उनके वंशज (Atri and his lineage)
Mandala 6 75 765 भरद्वाजः एवं उनके वंशज (Bharadvaja and his lineage)
Mandala 7 108 841 वसिष्ठः एवं उनके वंशज (Vasishta and his lineage)
Mandala 8 92 1636 कण्व अङ्गिरसः एवं उनके वंशज (Kanva Angirasa and his lineage)
Mandala 9 114 1108 ऋषिगण, विषय-पवमान सोम (Various rshis, topic - Pavamana Soma)
Mandala 10 191 1754 त्रित, विमद, इन्द्र, श्रद्धा कामायनी, इन्द्राणी, शची, उर्वशी आदि। (Trita, Vimada, Indra, Shraddha Kamayani, Indrani, Shachi, Urvashi etc)
Total 1017 10472
Valakhilya Suktas (Mandala 8) 11 80
Total 1028 10552

Some important points about the arrangement of the mantras are as follows.[8]

  • First and tenth mandalas exactly have 191 suktas. They are said to be more recent as compared to other mandalas. Analysis of the modernity of the language and chandas used, and invocations to new devatas, along with new darshanika concepts forms the basis to say that of all the mandalas the tenth mandala is the most recent having new mantras.
  • वंशमण्डल - Second to eight mandalas have complete unity in authorship. Mandalas second to sixth are have rshis Grtsamada, Vishvamitra, Vaamadeva, Atri, Bharadvaja, respectively and their families as the mantra-drashtas. The seventh mandala is given entirely by Vasishta. The eight mandala is predominantly given by rshis Kanva and Angiras.
  • पवमानमण्डल - Ninth mandala is made up of suktas addressed to Soma Pavamana; its mantra drsthas belong to rshis of different families. In this mandala the rshis belonging to the Vamsha-mandala have also contributed suktas.
  • Except in the eighth and ninth mandalas, everywhere the suktas to Agni are placed first, then those of Indra followed by those addressed to other deities are seen.
  • Simple chandas, having three or four lines of eight, eleven and twelve syllables as well as some complicated chandas are seen in Rigveda.

There are some criteria on which the arrangement of mantras is based on. They are as follows.[8]

  1. The suktas and mantras associated with rshi-families (ऋषि-परिवार) are first collected and grouped. Thus we see the vamsha-mandalas 2 to 7 are compiled first. They have only one rshi-family as the mantra-drashtas. The eighth mandala has rshis of two families as mantra-drashtas.
  2. The mantras revealed by one rshi are placed in one place to a great extent.
  3. Arrangement is organized such that there is unity of the subject matter.
  4. The subject matter about Soma (Pavamana Soma) is large hence the mantras and suktas have been compiled together even if compiled by different rshis.
  5. In arranging the suktas, the following order has been followed - Agni, Indra, Vishvedevas, Maruts, Ashvini devatas, Mitravaruna etc.
  6. The order of Chandas appears to be as follows - Gayatri, Trishtup, Jagati, Anushtup, and Pankti. These chandas have been used in the Rigveda.
  7. After this arrangement, the rshi families which have been left over are covered in the beginning or the end of the text. Additional attention has been given to place the suktas or mantras of those rshi-families which are greater in number, in the Mandala 1. Moreover, the number of suktas in Mandalas 1 and 10 have same number of suktas (192).
  8. Mandala 1 has the following rshis or their family members -
    1. Suktas 1 - 11: Madhu-chandas
    2. Suktas 12 - 23: Medhatithi-kanva
    3. Suktas 31 to 35: Hiranyasthupa Angirasa
    4. Suktas 36 - 50: Kanva or his family members
    5. Suktas 51 - 57: Savya Angirasa
    6. Suktas 58 - 64 and 74 - 93: Gautama or his family members
    7. Suktas 94 - 114: Kutsa Angirasa
    8. Suktas 116 - 126 and 140 - 164: Deerghatamas and his family members
    9. Suktas 165 - 191: Agasthya
  9. The suktas having less number of mantras have been placed at the end of the text. Hence in Mandala ten we find many rshis. Interspersed we find many suktas given by Rshikas (Brahmavadinis)[8]

The internal arrangement within a mandala places the mantras given by the father (rshi) first and followed by those given by the son. However, in a few cases the mantras given by the son are arranged earlier than the sukta of the father, because the son had given more suktas than the father.

अष्टकक्रमः ॥ Ashtaka krama

In the Ashtaka krama, eight ashtakas, each ashtaka has 8 adhyayas thus a total of 64 adhyayas, 2006 vargas are present. Here vargas are the collection of mantras compiled in this arrangement to facilitate convenience while studying. The number of mantras in a varga are not definite, but containing at least 5 mantras in a varga. In the end of the Samhita, we find the Rk Parishista in which 36 suktas are collected.[3] Given below are the number of vargas and mantras according to the Ashtaka krama.[7]

Ashtakas Number of Suktas Number of Vargas Mantra
Ashtaka 1 121 265 1370
Ashtaka 2 119 221 1147
Ashtaka 3 122 225 1209
Ashtaka 4 140 250 1289
Ashtaka 5 129 238 1263
Ashtaka 6 124 313 1650
Ashtaka 7 116 248 1263
Ashtaka 8 146 246 1281
Total 1017 2006 10472
Valakhilya 11 18 80
Total 1028 2024 10552

Rgveda Samhitas

Charanavyuha of Saunaka enumerates five principle shakas of the Rigveda, namely, Shakala, Baskala (Vaskala), Ashvalayana, Shankhayana and Mandukeya. Each of which had a sutra of its own. The extant and available samhita of Rgveda belongs to the Shakala shaka. It is the only available samhita of Rgveda. It is popular from ancient times which preserved the best tradition of this veda. Bashkala, Ashvalayana, Shankhyayana, Mandukayana, shaka samhitas are not available in present times. Rigveda is also called Bahvrcha, for many rks are incorporated in it.

शाकल संहिता Shakala Samhita

Shakalya (शाकल्यः)

Padapatha of Rgveda samhita was given by Shakalya (शाकल्यः). In the Brhdaranyaka Upanishad (Adhyaya 4) we find a debate between Shakalya and Yajnavalkya in Janaka's sabha. According to the Puranic evidences, it was this same Shakalya who composed the Rgveda Padapatha. In the Brahmanda Purana we find the following

शाकल्यः प्रथमस्तेषां तस्मादन्यो रथीतरः ।। बाष्कलिश्च भरद्वाज इति शाखाप्रवर्त्तकाः ।। ३४.३२ ।। देवमित्रस्तु शाकल्यो ज्ञानाहंकारगर्वितः ।। जनकस्य स यज्ञे वै विनाशामगमद्द्विजाः ।। ३४.३३ ।। (Brahmanda. Pura. Purv. 2.34.32-33)[9]

Reference to Shakalya has also been found in Nirukta and Rk-Pratisakhya. It has been shown that Shakalya's padapatha has not been accepted by Yaska in his Nirukta. For example in Nirukta (5.21) "अरुणो मासकृद् वृकः" has been mentioned. Yaska interpreted मासकृत् as one word in the sense of "मासो का कर्ता" or one who makes a month. Shakalya considered it as two padas or words as मा and सकृत्. Thus we see how Yaska and Shakalya differed in their interpretations.[10]

विषयविवेचन ॥ Contents of Rgveda

Rgveda is a vast collection of stotras, where many devatas are praised and eulogized by various rshis and their family using beautiful comparisons and emotional expressions, both to please the devatas as well as to achieve their wishes. We find numerous references to geography, descriptions about the three worlds (पृथ्वी or the earth, अन्तरिक्षम् or द्युलोकः referred to as the outer space including the atmosphere and स्वर्गः refers to the higher worlds loosely translated as heaven) the devatas, rivers and oceans, countries, asuras or dasyus, and socio-economic conditions of people, the society, marriage, lifestyle, occupations, construction of villages and cities, rulers of countries and wars, dialogue suktas such as that of Sarama and Pani, and the darshanika suktas to name a few.[3]

The tenth mandala includes mantras of miscellaneous character that covers a wide range of topics from cosmology, philosophical speculations, burial rites, samvada suktas, weddings to spells and incantations.

Thus, we have many topics discussed in the Rgveda, however, some are debated in the recent centuries. One such topic is the geographical point concerning Bharatavarsha that is surrounded by four oceans or very large water bodies. The other being the existence of river Sarasvati. The presence of four seas has been clearly mentioned only in the Bharatiya vaidika sahitya and rarely discussed in other ancient world literatures. Many scholars, both western and the traditional scholars have given their perspectives interpreting those Rgvedic mantras relating them to the "Aryan settlements" along the banks of the rivers in the northwestern region of India. With the myth of the Aryan Invasion debunked, we see new research evolving lately regarding the geographic aspects given in the Rigveda.[11]

Thus we find interesting discussions about the astronomical, geographical, and geological aspects of importance along with description of nature, socio-economic aspects and darshanik aspects that are valid in the present day society.

Astronomical aspects

In the Aitareya Brahmana (3.44) we find the concept that Sun (Surya) never raises or sets but it only flips at the end of daylight and returns with the bright side up on the next day. On reaching the end of the day, the sun flips such that the dark night side faces us. This concept was agreeable in the Rgveda suktas also (1.115.4 and 5.81.4). And that the earth was circular like a discus was known to the people in those times.[2]

Geological aspects

According to Dr. Kapil Dev Dwivedi[12] many interesting geological aspects are revealed during the study of Rgveda. It was long known to ancient people that the earth has 7 strata (Rgveda 1.22.16), and that the movements within both the earth and in the paramanus (atoms) are regulated by Vishnu.

Rgveda (10.1.6) states that the core of the earth is filled with Agni covered by a brilliant cloak.

स तु वस्राण्यध पेशनानि वसानो अग्निर्नाभा पृथिव्याः ॥ (Rg. Veda. 10.1.6)

The concept of fire and its tejas (तेजोमय वस्त्र) the brilliant cloak or garment is expressed in many mantras. Yajurveda also states that prthvi or earth is the center (yoni) of agni and it is due to this central Agni that causes the movement of the earth. Atharvaveda states that Agni is present in the Earth, अग्निवासाः पृथ्विवी (Atha. Veda. 12.1.21) and hence prthvi is called Agnivaasas (अग्निवासस्). That the rivers and ocean waters contain Agni is also expressed in the Rgveda. Agni is present in all living beings and the same is said to spread into the waters of rivers and oceans.

यो अग्निः सप्तमानुषाः श्रितो विश्वेषु सिन्धुषु ॥ (Rg. Veda. 8.39.8)

In the above mantra Sindhu (सिन्धु) indicates both the rivers and oceans. It is said that Agni exists in the waters and it is well known that by the churning of the river water electricity is generated. Rigveda clearly mentions the presence of Ratnas (gems) and treasures of gold etc which are the cause of prosperity, in the earth.

रियं त इन्द्र पृथिवी बिभर्ति ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.55.22) पुरू वसूनि पृथिवी बिभर्ति ॥ (Rg. Veda. 3.51.5)

Nature in Rgveda

The main part of Rigveda belongs to suktas related to nature and natural forces. The Vedic deities are explained in different ways by the scholars of India and West, but speaking generally, the suktas addressed to deities (Devata) are under the influence of the most impressive phenomenon of nature and its aspects. The word Devata means divine, divinity which is bright, strong, donor, and powerful. In these suktas we find prayers for certain natural elements such as air, water, earth, sun, rain, dawn etc. The glorious brightness of the sun, the blaze of the sacrificial fire, the sweep of the rain-storm across the skies, the recurrence of the dawn, the steady currents of the winds, the violence of the tropical storm and other such natural energies, fundamental activities or aspects are glorified and personified as divinities (Devata).

The interaction with nature resulted in appreciation and prayer but, indeed, after a good deal of observation. Attributes assigned to deities fit in their natural forms and activities, as Soma is green, fire is bright, air is fast moving and sun is dispenser of darkness. The characteristics of these forces described in the mantras prove that Vedic seers were masters of natural science. All powers, aspects or activities of nature are generally regarded as deities because they are helpful, beneficial and essential for our life. Rivers, mountains, earth, air, water, plants, trees, forest, fire, rain, cloud, Sun, Moon etc, all are deities in Vedic mythology. In Rigveda the names of major deities are, such as Agni, Indra, Vayu, Earth, Soma, Varuna, Vishnu, Aditya, Usha, Aditi, Parjanya, etc. They are indeed the natural instruments of wealth - the inner earth crust, Surya and the other grahas, medicinal plants, oceans and rivers, water bodies such as waterfalls and forests.

इन्द्राय द्याव ओषधीरुतापो रियं रक्षन्ति जीरयो वनानि ॥ (Rig. Veda. 3.51.5)

Darshanika Tattva

In the 10th mandala of Rigveda we find many suktas portraying darshanika aspects of Bharatiya tattvajnana. In fact they are seen as the precursor to the siddhantas laid out in the Shad Darshanas. The darshanika aspect, according to some scholars, also supports the fact that the 10th mandala is a more recent addition to the Rgveda as it is very contrary to the stuti-presentation given in the rest of the mandalas. The two most important references are the Nasadiya Sukta and Purusha Sukta. Purusha sukta propounds Sarveshvara-vada (the all-pervading characteristic) which is considered as a modern thought process, a concept which discusses an all-permeating image or form (Saakara, aakruti) of the Supreme Self in the universe. According to some western scholars, spiritual development has the following course - Bahudevata-vada, Ekadevata-vada and Sarveshvara-vada. The oldest times witness worship of many deities, which later led to worship of one deity (Prajapati or Hiranyagarbha). This further led to development of faith in all-pervading deity, a more recent concept.[3]

अयँ लोक ऋग्वेदः। (Shad. Brah. 1.5)[13]

According to Shadvimsha Brahmana, Rgveda is said to be the bhuloka and Agni is the important devata. In the same Brahmana, Yajurveda is said to have Vayu as the important devata (of the Antariksha loka) while Surya is the important deity of Samaveda (of Dyuloka).[8] Manusmrti reinforces this point as mentioned below.

अग्निवायुरविभ्यस्तु त्र्यं ब्रह्म सनातनम। दुदोह यज्ञसिध्यर्थमृग्यजुः सामलक्षणम्॥ (Manu. Smrt. 1.13)[14]

Meaning: From Agni, Vayu and Surya, was milked the eternal Rigveda, Yajurveda and Samaveda respectively for the performance of yajnas. Rigveda involves the Vaktattva or speech aspects (including knowledge and contemplation), Yajurveda involves Manastattva or psychological aspects (personality, action, nature), and Samaveda includes Pranatattava or energy balance aspects (strength, cooperation). A coordination of the three tattavatas leads a person to attain Brahman.

ब्रह्म वा ऋक् । अमृतं वा ऋक् । (Kous. Brah. 7.10) प्राणो वा ऋक्। (Jaim. Brah. 1.112)

Above such references in various brahmanas portray the darshanik aspects (philosophical) of Rigveda. We find information about Brahman, Vak (Speech), Prana (energy), Amruta (eternity), Veerya (propagation) etc. Thus, we find the description about attaining Brahman, the shabda Brahman (vaktattva), Prana or the energy, means to attain Amaratva (eternity), and magnificence by practicing Brahmacharya.[8]

Important Suktas of Different Kinds

In the Rigveda we find Suktas of different kinds based on the subject matter. They include topics such as manovijnana (science of the mind or psychology) and bhashavijnana (science of language) along with srsthi-utpatti (the origin of creation), ayurveda (science of health), darshanika tattva (philosophy), adhyatmika tattva (spirituality) etc. Apart from topic based suktas, we have samvada suktas based on conversation between two characters (deities, rshis etc).[8] The suktas are placed under the following heads.

(1) देवस्तुतिपरकसूक्त - Suktas primarily in praise and worship of devatas, example - Agni Sukta

(2) दार्शनिक सूक्त - Suktas describing the philosophical tattvas, example - Purusha Sukta

(3) लौकिक सूक्त - Suktas describing the worldly affairs, example - Vivaha Sukta

(4) संवाद सूक्त - Suktas where there is a conversation between two beings may or may not have an associated legend, example - Sarama Pani Samvada Sukta

(5) आख्यान सूक्त - Suktas which narrate a legend, example - Shyavashva Sukta

Important darshanika suktas found in the Rigveda include[8]

  1. Nasadiya Sukta (नासदीयसूक्तम्) - 10.129
  2. Purusha Sukta (पुरुषसूक्तम्) - 10.10
  3. Hiranyagarbha Sukta (हिरण्यगर्भसूक्तम्) - 1.121
  4. Vak Sukta (वाक् सूक्तम्) - 10.125
  5. Asya-vamiya Sukta - 1.164
  6. Shraddha Sukta - 10.151

Important laukika Suktas found in Rigveda include[8]

  1. Sajnana Sukta - 10.191
  2. Danastuti Sukta - 10.107 and 117
  3. Aksha Sukta - 10.34
  4. Vivaha Sukta - 10.85

Important Akhyana suktas found in Rigveda include[8]

  1. Vishnu Sukta (Trivikrama) - 1.154
  2. Soma Suryaa vivaha Sukta - 10.85
  3. Shyavashva Sukta - 5.61
  4. Manduka Sukta - 7.103
  5. Indra Vrtra Yuddha Sukta - 1.80 and 2.12

Important Samvada suktas found in Rigveda include[8]

  1. Pururava Urvashi Samvada (पुरुरवा-ऊर्वशी संवादः) - 10.95
  2. Yama Yami Samvada - 10.10
  3. Sarama Pani Samvada - 10.108
  4. Vishvamitra Nadi Samvada - 3.33
  5. Indra Marut Samvada - 1.165
  6. Agasthya Lopamudra Samvada - 1.179
  7. Vasishta Sudas Samvada - 7.83
  8. Indra Indrani Vrshakapi Samvada - 10.86

The Akhyana and Samvada suktas in the Rigveda are said to be the seed material of the later day Itihasa, Kavyas, Mahakavyas (poetics), and natakas (drama). The information found in seed form in the Rigveda is supported and elaborated, similar to a fruit-bearing tree, in the Brahmana and Aranyaka literature. In this way the Akhyana and Samvada suktas have significant role in defining the Bharatiya Laukika Sahitya. The concepts found ground and developed further in the Itihasa and Purana literature. According to the traditional views, it is said that dramaturgy (the art of dramas) originated from the Vedas. Mahamuni Bharata the author of Natyashastra, describes that Brahma composed the "Natyaveda or Panchamaveda" as the essence of the four vedas upon request of the devatas. For this purpose, the essence of Pathya (including the Samvadas and anecdotes) was taken from the Rigveda, that of Sangeeta (music) from Samaveda, Abhinaya (action) from Yajurveda, and Rasa (aesthetics) from Atharvaveda.[8]

मंत्रार्थ प्रस्तुति शैली ॥ Presentation style of Mantra meaning

There are many akhyanas or anecdotes in Rgveda. A few are famous and are found in Brahmana and other texts such as Brhaddevata.[3][8] However, Akhyana style of explaining the purport of the mantras is one way of presenting the meaning of a mantra. Nirukta indicates that there are at least three ways of giving out the meaning of Rigveda mantras as follows[15]

  1. आख्यान शैली ॥ Akhyana style of presentation - In the reference 10.10 of Nirukta, Yaska explains "ऋषेर्दृष्टार्थस्य प्रीतिर्भवत्याख्यानसंयुक्ता" which means that the rshis who are tattvadrashtas in a few instances express the meaning of their mantras in the Akhyana style. The meaning of the mantra is presented by embedding it in a creative story. While the mantras in the veda contain a part or section of the whole legend, Brahmanas, Brhaddevata or Sarvanukramanika usually contain the complete story. Indra sukta (Rigveda. 2.12) is one such example.
  2. ऐतिहासिक शैली ॥ Aitihasika style of presentation - Yaska further uses the term "इत्यैतिहासिकाः" at the end his commentary for many mantras. It indicates that the meaning of the mantra is conveyed by the Aitihasika style of writing. For example, तत्को वृत्रः मेघ इति नैरुक्ताः, त्वष्ट्रोऽसुर इत्यैतिहासिकाः etc, meaning "Who is Vrtra, he is Megha as said by Nairuktakaras, he is Tvatshtra (son of Tvashta) an asura as said by the Aitihasikas (one who expound Itihasa)." Here we see that by the aitihasika style of presentation Vrtra is described as an asura and son of Tvashta.
  3. नैरुक्त शैली ॥ Nairukta style of presentation - Here the meaning of the mantras are presented as per the directions of Niruktakaras, where words have to be interpreted grammatically, thus they become derived meanings. So according to Nairuktakaras, Vrtra does not refer to an asura and son of Tvashta but to वृणोतेर्वर्धतेवा where 'one that circles and grows' applies to Megha or clouds. Thus Vrtra also refers to a Cloud. The sense in which the root or dhatus (without the prakrti and pratyaya) are expressed is used to drive the derived meanings. In the same way, Vishvamitra refers to "Sarvamitra". In such style of presentation, no particular person is referred to but the person or things associated to a meaning so derived bear importance.

Niruktakara, Acharya Yaska alludes to Akhyanasamya (आख्यानसमयः), Aitihasika (ऐतिहासिकाः) and Naidanaa (नैदानाः) styles of presentation of a context. All the three styles only differ slightly. Acharya Vararuchi in his commentary on Nirukta clarifies as follows [16]

औपचारिको मन्त्रेष्वाख्यानसमय इति नैरुक्तानां सिद्धान्तः ।

Meaning: Akhyanas (legends) and Itihasa (accounts of former events) described in the mantras are usually figurative or metaphorical according to Nairukta siddhanta.

On an in-depth exploration one finds that the description of an event is of three types - extraordinary (असम्भव), probable (सम्भवासम्भव) and possible (सम्भव). In the Vedic literature mostly we find extraordinary (चमत्कारकवाचक) and generic (जातिवाचक) usages for describing events. Here a person, river, city or place in particular (व्यक्तिवाचक) are used metaphorically and are used to convey an underlying natural, social, spiritual, or a philosophical message. However, in the Brahmana and Puranic literature we find descriptions which appear probable and possible, which is very rare in the Vedas. For example, the akhyana of Vishvamitra and Menaka is described in an extraordinary way in the Vedas. Elsewhere we find that Dushyanta and Shakuntala are described as normal human personalities but their progeny, Bharata is associated with Indra; both of them being extraordinary characters. In this state, calling Vishvamitra and Menaka (of the Vedas) as the ancestors of Dushyanta and Bharata (of the Puranas) creates a confusion in the minds of the reader. In the Vedic mantras, one does not find human-like description (मानुषीवर्णन) of Vishvamitra and Menaka, nor does vaidik Bharata (who approaches Indra) appear to have any relation with the laukika Bharata. Many misinterpretations arise as the storyline borrowed from the earlier literature gets digested with their new modifications in modern laukika sahitya. Thus a careful consideration of vaidika akhyanas is required to discern between the historical and poetic parts of the literature.[16]

Pravachanakaras of Rgveda

One may classify the Samskrit commentators of the Rgveda into the following five main categories : [17]

  • those commentators whose commentaries are now available in full in published form; Sayanacharya (1316-1388) alone can be cited as an example in this category. His commentary on Rgveda is called Vedarthaprakasa.
  • those commentators who can be reasonably presumed to have written commentaries on the entire Rgveda but only some portions of whose commentaries have become available so far; Skandaswamin (around 600 AD). He named his commentary as Rgarthaagamasamhrti. Venkatamadhava (1100 AD) composed Rgarthadipika. According to Venkatamadhava Skandaswamin, Narayana and Udgitha together composed the Rgbhashya respectively, i.e., the first part was by Skandaswamin, the middle part by Narayana and the ending was given by Udgitha.[3]
  • स्कन्दस्वामी नारायण उद्गीथ इति ते क्रमात् । चक्रुः सहैकमृग्भाष्यं पदवाक्यार्थगोचरम् ।।
  • those persons who are known to have written commentaries only on certain specific mantras of the Rgveda; commentators. Haradatta (9th century A.D.) wrote the commentary called Asvalayana-mantra-patha-bhashya. Anandatirtha (Madhavaacharya) has written a commentary on Rgveda1.1-40 (except 1.34.7-12). Atmananda (around 13th Century) has commented on only one sukta namely 1.164. Dinakara Bhatta in his Rgarthasara has given his commentary on 207 mantras of the Rgveda.
  • those persons who are directly or indirectly referred to in literature as commentators of the Rgveda but no portions of whose commentaries have become available so far; Narayana and Udgitha
  • the Rgveda-commentators of the modern times.

Most commentators have interpreted Rgveda mainly in the light of the Vedic rituals.

References

  1. Shabdakapadhruma (See under Rik)
  2. 2.0 2.1 Pt. Upadhyaya, Baldev. (2012 Second Edition) Samskrit Vangmay ke Brihad Itihas, Vol 1, Veda. Lucknow: Uttar Pradesh Sanskrit Sansthan. (Pages 94 to 127)
  3. 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 Upadhyaya, Baldev (1958) Vaidik Sahitya
  4. Rgveda Samhita, Katyayana Sarvanukramanika (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 809)
  5. 5.0 5.1 Rgveda Samhita, Shaunaka Anukramanika (2011 Reprint edition) Varanasi: Choukhambha Samskrit Pratisthan (Page 828)
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