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==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

According to Shabdakalpadhruma the term Pramana (प्रमाणम्) is derived from the dhatu मा (मा॒ माने) used in the sense of measurement and cognition with an upasarga (prefix) प्र which is used in the sense of प्रकृष्टः and the pratyaya (suffix) lyut (ल्युट्). The suffix 'lyut', being in the instrumental case. Pramana means the instrument by which some thing is rightly cognized.   

According to Shabdakalpadhruma the term Pramana (प्रमाणम्) is derived from the dhatu मा (मा॒ङ् माने) used in the sense of measurement and cognition with an upasarga (prefix) प्र which is used in the sense of प्रकृष्टः and the pratyaya (suffix) lyut (ल्युट्). The suffix 'lyut', being in the instrumental case. Pramana means the instrument by which some thing is rightly cognized. According to Prof. Korada Subrahmanyam,<ref>Paper Presentation by Prof. K. Subrahmanayam titled ''[https://groups.google.com/d/msg/bvparishat/xY1Y-wdPeSo/CKzUaFPABwAJ Pramāṇas in Indian Philosophy]'' </ref> <blockquote>''Pramāṇa is the instrument by which the reality of essence of anything is ascertained (प्रमीयते परिच्छिद्यते वस्तुतत्त्वं येन तत्प्रमाणम् – माङ् माने or डुमिञ् प्रक्षेपणे – करणे ल्युट् – करणाधिकरणयोश्च पा^० ३-३-११७, प्रमाकरणं प्रमाणम्).''</blockquote>The word Pramana signifies the instrument because (it is derived as) "by this is rightly known" (Pramiyate anena). Loosely the term stands for knowledge as well as for the means of valid knowledge but in Nyaya logic it is generally used in the second sense.<ref name=":1" />

The word Pramana signifies the instrument because (it is derived as) "by this is rightly known" (Pramiyate anena). Loosely the term stands for knowledge as well as for the means of valid knowledge but in Nyaya logic it is generally used in the second sense.<ref name=":1" />

Pramanas are in a way standards for examination, verification, modification and confirmation of our knowledge. A mention of Pramanas is made in the Taittriya Aranyaka as follows<blockquote>स्मृतिः प्रत्यक्षमैतिह्यम् । अनुमानश्चतुष्टयम् । (Tait. Aran. 1.2.1)<ref>Taittriya Aranyaka ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1 Anuvaka 2])</ref></blockquote>Smrti, Pratyaksha, Aitihya, and Anumana are four terms.

==प्रमाणतत्वम् ॥ Pramana Tattva==

==प्रमाणतत्वम् ॥ Pramana Tattva==

While Jnana is used to denote knowledge from the psychological standpoint that helps in cognition of an object, Prama is used to indicate true knowledge in the logical sense, which denotes ability of recognizing the real nature and character of an object. The following section elaborates on the four factors which make up the system of cognition as generally agreed by scholars.  

While Jnana is used to denote knowledge from the psychological standpoint that helps in cognition of an object, Prama is used to indicate true knowledge in the logical sense, which denotes ability of recognizing the real nature and character of an object. The following section elaborates on the four factors which make up the system of cognition as generally agreed by scholars.  

== Four Factors of Cognition ==

== अर्थतत्वम् ॥ Artha Tattva ==

Four basic factors make up the system of recognition. Vatsyayana Bhashya of Nyayasutras defines the 4 components as follows<blockquote>तत्र यस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य प्रवृत्तिः स प्रमाता । स येनार्थं प्रमिणोति तत्प्रमाणं । योऽर्थः प्रतीयते तत्प्रमेयं । यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । चतसृषु चैवंविधास्वार्थतत्वं परिसमाप्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5">Pt. Gangadhara Sastri Tailanga. (1896) The Nyayasutras with Vatsayana's Bhashya and Extracts from the Nyayavarttika and the Tatparyatika. ([https://archive.org/details/NyayaBhashyam-GangadharaTailanga/page/n48 Page 48 of PDF]) Benares : E. J. Lazarus & Co</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatra yasyepsājihāsāprayuktasya pravr̥ttiḥ sa pramātā । sa yenārthaṁ pramiṇoti tatpramāṇaṁ । yo'rthaḥ pratīyate tatprameyaṁ । yadarthavijñānaṁ sā pramitiḥ । catasr̥ṣu caivaṁvidhāsvārthatatvaṁ parisamāpyate । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)</blockquote>

Four basic factors make up the system of recognition according to Nyaya darshana. Since all the fundamental aspects of cognition are explained in this shastra sutras from Nyaya are taken as a standard. Vatsyayana Bhashya of Nyayasutras defines the 4 components as follows<blockquote>तत्र यस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य प्रवृत्तिः स प्रमाता । स येनार्थं प्रमिणोति तत्प्रमाणं । योऽर्थः प्रतीयते तत्प्रमेयं । यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । चतसृषु चैवंविधास्वार्थतत्वं परिसमाप्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5">Pt. Gangadhara Sastri Tailanga. (1896) The Nyayasutras with Vatsayana's Bhashya and Extracts from the Nyayavarttika and the Tatparyatika. ([https://archive.org/details/NyayaBhashyam-GangadharaTailanga/page/n48 Page 48 of PDF]) Benares : E. J. Lazarus & Co</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatra yasyepsājihāsāprayuktasya pravr̥ttiḥ sa pramātā । sa yenārthaṁ pramiṇoti tatpramāṇaṁ । yo'rthaḥ pratīyate tatprameyaṁ । yadarthavijñānaṁ sā pramitiḥ । catasr̥ṣu caivaṁvidhāsvārthatatvaṁ parisamāpyate । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)</blockquote>

#The Prama (प्रमा) or Pramiti  : the valid knowledge (of an object), the right understanding

#The Prama (प्रमा) or Pramiti  : the valid knowledge (of an object), the right understanding

#The Prameya (प्रमेयः) : the knowable, the object to be known, the object of valid knowledge

#The Prameya (प्रमेयः) : the knowable, the object to be known, the object of valid knowledge

'''Vaisheshika''' : अदुष्टं विद्या । वैशेषिक-९,२.१२ ।  aduṣṭaṁ vidyā । vaiśeṣika-9,2.12 । (Vais. Sutr. 9.2.12)<ref>Vaiseshika [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Sutras]</ref> The knowledge which is not corrupted is Vidya. It is implied from this sutra that what is not corrupted and is well tested, free from Indriya doshas and Samskara doshas is nothing but Prama.

'''Vaisheshika''' : अदुष्टं विद्या । वैशेषिक-९,२.१२ ।  aduṣṭaṁ vidyā । vaiśeṣika-9,2.12 । (Vais. Sutr. 9.2.12)<ref>Vaiseshika [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Sutras]</ref> The knowledge which is not corrupted is Vidya. It is implied from this sutra that what is not corrupted and is well tested, free from Indriya doshas and Samskara doshas is nothing but Prama.

There are other versions about what constitutes Prama by different Bharatiya shastras, though they have not been explicitly mentioned in sutra format.<ref name=":3" />

'''Prabhakara Mimamsa''' : They define prama or valid knowledge as immediate experience (Anubhuti). It is different from smrti or memory which is the impression of past experiences. That is to say 'valid cognition' is Apprehension. Hence according to them the truth of knowledge, praamaanya is guaranteed by its having the characteristic of immediacy. <blockquote>प्रमाणमनुभूतिः, सा स्मृतेरन्या, न सा स्मृतिः । न प्रमाणं स्मृतिः पूर्वप्रतिपत्तिव्यपेक्षणात्।<ref name=":22">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (Reprint 1978) [https://archive.org/details/jha-purvamimamsa_201412/page/n32 ''The Prabhakara  School of Purva Mimamsa''.] Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers</ref> (Prakaranapanchika)</blockquote>There are other versions about what constitutes Prama by different Bharatiya shastras, though they have not been explicitly mentioned in sutra format.<ref name=":3" />

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

|+Difference between Prama and Jnana  

|+Difference between Prama and Jnana  

!Darshana

! rowspan="2" |Darshana

!Prama

!Prama

!Jnana

!Jnana

|-

|-

!Defined as the knowledge obtained after testing the validity of an unknown entity by Pramana.

|Defined as the knowledge obtained after testing the validity of an unknown entity by Pramana.

!Defined as knowledge in general broadly.

|Defined as knowledge in general broadly.

|-

|-

|Samkhya

|Samkhya

|Knowledge of an object, undoubted and real (परीक्षितम्), previously unknown (अपूर्वनिश्चितज्ञानम्)<ref name=":4">M. Chandraiah. (2002) Ph. D. Thesis Title : ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/71380 Anupalabdhi as a Pramana. A Critical Study.]'' Tirupati : Venkateswara University</ref>

|Knowledge of an object, undoubted and real (परीक्षितम्), previously unknown (अपूर्वनिश्चितज्ञानम्)<ref name=":4">M. Chandraiah. (2002) Ph. D. Thesis Title : ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/71380 Anupalabdhi as a Pramana. A Critical Study.]'' Tirupati : Venkateswara University</ref>

|'''Theory of Svaprakasatva.''' Cognition (Buddhi) being जड (अचेतनम् inert), is realised by Purusha, which alone is self conscious.<ref name=":4" />

|'''Theory of Svaprakasatva.''' Cognition (Buddhi) being जड़ (अचेतनम् inert), is realised by Purusha, which alone is self conscious.<ref name=":4" />

|-

|-

|Nyaya  

|Nyaya  

* '''Bhashya''' : तस्य भोगायतनं शरीरम् । tasya bhogāyatanaṁ śarīram । The base of Atma's experiences is the body.(Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Bhashya''' : तस्य भोगायतनं शरीरम् । tasya bhogāyatanaṁ śarīram । The base of Atma's experiences is the body.(Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

=== इन्द्रियानि ॥ Sense-organs ===

=== इन्द्रियाणि ॥ Sense-organs ===

* '''Sutra''' : घ्राणरसनचक्षुस्त्वक्श्रोत्राणि इन्द्रियाणि भूतेभ्यः ।।१२।। {इन्द्रियलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> ghrāṇarasanacakṣustvakśrotrāṇi indriyāṇi bhūtebhyaḥ ।।12।। {indriyalakṣaṇam} It means the sense organs ( organs of smell, taste, vision, sensation, audition) are made from material substances (panchamahabhutas).  

* '''Sutra''' : घ्राणरसनचक्षुस्त्वक्श्रोत्राणि इन्द्रियाणि भूतेभ्यः ।।१२।। {इन्द्रियलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> ghrāṇarasanacakṣustvakśrotrāṇi indriyāṇi bhūtebhyaḥ ।।12।। {indriyalakṣaṇam} It means the sense organs ( organs of smell, taste, vision, sensation, audition) are made from material substances (panchamahabhutas).  

* '''Bhashya''' : ससाधनसुखदःखोपभोगः फलम् । sasādhanasukhadaḥkhopabhogaḥ phalam । Experience of pleasure, pain along with the instruments leading to them is the Result. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Bhashya''' : ससाधनसुखदःखोपभोगः फलम् । sasādhanasukhadaḥkhopabhogaḥ phalam । Experience of pleasure, pain along with the instruments leading to them is the Result. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

=== दुःख ॥ Pain ===

=== दुःखम् ॥ Pain ===

* '''Sutra''' : बाधनालक्षणं दुःखम्।।२१।।{दुःखलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> bādhanālakṣaṇaṁ duḥkham।।21।।{duḥkhalakṣaṇam} Meaning : The experience of suffering or injury consists of Pain.

* '''Sutra''' : बाधनालक्षणं दुःखम्।।२१।।{दुःखलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> bādhanālakṣaṇaṁ duḥkham।।21।।{duḥkhalakṣaṇam} Meaning : The experience of suffering or injury consists of Pain.

* '''Bhashya''' : दुःखमिति, नेदमनुकूलवेदनीयस्य सुखस्य प्रतीतेः प्रत्याख्यानं । किं तर्हि जन्मन एवेदम् । duḥkhamiti, nedamanukūlavedanīyasya sukhasya pratīteḥ pratyākhyānaṁ । kiṁ tarhi janmana evedam । By the special mention of 'Pain' (and the omission of 'pleasure') it is not meant that there is no pleasure at all. Birth is intended as Pain here. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Bhashya''' : दुःखमिति, नेदमनुकूलवेदनीयस्य सुखस्य प्रतीतेः प्रत्याख्यानं । किं तर्हि जन्मन एवेदम् । duḥkhamiti, nedamanukūlavedanīyasya sukhasya pratīteḥ pratyākhyānaṁ । kiṁ tarhi janmana evedam । By the special mention of 'Pain' (and the omission of 'pleasure') it is not meant that there is no pleasure at all. Birth is intended as Pain here. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* Dvaita school also accepts that pramana is that which comprehends an object as it is, yatartha pramanam.  

* Dvaita school also accepts that pramana is that which comprehends an object as it is, yatartha pramanam.  

====प्रमाणसङ्ख्या ॥ Number of Pramanas====

====प्रमाणसङ्ख्या ॥ Number of Pramanas====

There are atleast ten kinds of Pramanas, but in the matter of recognizing different pramanas, different schools of Indian Philosophy adopted divergent schemes. The number of pramanas accepted by the important schools vary from one to eight. (Page 33 of Reference<ref name=":32">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy. [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf (Chapter 2)] University of North Bengal</ref>)

There are atleast ten kinds of Pramanas, but in the matter of recognizing different pramanas, different schools of Indian Philosophy adopted divergent schemes. The number of pramanas accepted by the important schools vary from one to eight. (Page 33 of Reference<ref name=":3" />)

#Charvakas accept pratyaksha pramana (perception) only as a single means of knowledge.

#Charvakas accept pratyaksha pramana (perception) only as a single means of knowledge.

#Nastika Darshanas accept pratyaksha (perception) and anumana (inference).

#Nastika Darshanas accept pratyaksha (perception) and anumana (inference).

#Naiyaayikas recognize 4 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference), shabda and Upamana (comparison) as the means of knowledge.

#Naiyaayikas recognize 4 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference), shabda and Upamana (comparison) as the means of knowledge.

#Prabhakara school of Purva Mimamsa accepts 5 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda or agama (verbal testimony) and Upamana (comparison) and arthaapatti (presumption) as the means of knowledge.

#Prabhakara school of Purva Mimamsa accepts 5 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda or agama (verbal testimony) and Upamana (comparison) and arthaapatti (presumption) as the means of knowledge.

#Kumarilabhatta school of Purva Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta of Uttara Mimamsa school both accept 6 pramanas - Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Shabda or aagama (verbal testimony) and Upamana (comparison), Arthaapatti (presumption) and Anupalabdhi (negation or non-apprehension) as the means of knowledge.

#Kumarilabhatta school of Purva Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta of Uttara Mimamsa school both accept 6 pramanas - Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Shabda or Agama (verbal testimony), Upamana (comparison), Arthaapatti (presumption) and Anupalabdhi (negation or non-apprehension) as the means of knowledge.

#Pauranikas admit the above 6 with the addition of Sambhava (probability or inclusion)  and Aitihya (tradition or rumour).

#Pauranikas admit the above 6 with the addition of Sambhava (probability or inclusion)  and Aitihya (tradition or rumour).

#Tantrikas recognize, along with the above 8, Chesta (indication) as the means of knowledge.

#Tantrikas recognize, along with the above 8, Chesta (indication) as the means of knowledge.

== References ==

== References ==