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Pramana (Samskrit : प्रमाणम्) is the means or chief instrument of knowing valid knowledge (pramaa (प्रमा)). From the questions like who and what created the universe, determining the nature of objects, sprang an urge for investigation into the real state of things (Tatvajignasa). These queries led to investigation into identifying the criterion of what constitutes valid knowledge and the ways by which objects or things can be cognized ultimately theories of cognition have been formulated. Pramana is a subject that arose from the need to recognize valid knowledge and various theories have been proposed to describe the same.<ref name=":0">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy] University of North Bengal</ref>   

Pramana (Samskrit : प्रमाणम्) is the means or chief instrument of knowing valid knowledge (Prama । प्रमा)). From the questions like who and what created the universe, determining the nature of objects, sprang an urge for investigation into the real state of things (Tatvajignasa). These queries led to investigation into identifying the criterion of what constitutes valid knowledge and the ways by which objects or things can be cognized ultimately theories of cognition have been formulated. Pramana is a subject that arose from the need to recognize valid knowledge and various theories have been proposed to describe the same.<ref name=":0">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy] University of North Bengal</ref>   

== परिचयः॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः॥ Introduction ==

All thinkers in general have given their attention to the problem of cognition for a long time. Bharatiya tattva shastras are unique in that Jnana  (ज्ञानम् । knowledge), Prama (प्रमा । Right or valid knowledge) and Aprama (अप्रमा । invalid knowledge) are clearly distinct entities. Western tradition  defines 'knowledge' as truth, and justified true belief. Indian tradition does not have an equivalent word for belief. In Bharatiya shastras, Prama is explored in the context of fulfilling purusharthas, whereas western traditions do not have such an ultimate goal for exploring knowledge, thus for them knowledge is just for the sake of knowledge. Knowledge and Action are both related to the Mind. However, Action is dependent on the agent and his will (Kartr-tantra) while Knowledge is conditioned by its object (vastu-tantra). When a man decides to travel his will determines the mode of travel and the place to reach. This is not the case of Knowledge, it is independent of the will of the person, a pillar is a pillar and confirms to the vastu or object  and does not change even if the someone mistakes it for a man standing.<ref name=":1">Adhikary, Jaya. (2003) Ph. D. Thesis Title : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/137458/4/04_chapter_01.pdf The Nyaya Concepts of Prama Pramana and Pramanya :  A critical study.]'' University of North Bengal</ref>  

All thinkers in general have given their attention to the problem of cognition for a long time. Bharatiya tattva shastras are unique in that Jnana  (ज्ञानम् । knowledge), Prama (प्रमा । Right or valid knowledge) and [[Aprama (अप्रमा)|Aprama]] (अप्रमा । invalid knowledge) are clearly distinct entities. Western tradition  defines 'knowledge' as truth, and justified true belief. Indian tradition does not have an equivalent word for belief. In Bharatiya shastras, Prama is explored in the context of fulfilling purusharthas, whereas western traditions do not have such an ultimate goal for exploring knowledge, thus for them knowledge is just for the sake of knowledge. Knowledge and Action are both related to the Mind. However, Action is dependent on the agent and his will (Kartr-tantra) while Knowledge is conditioned by its object (vastu-tantra). When a man decides to travel his will determines the mode of travel and the place to reach. This is not the case of Knowledge, it is independent of the will of the person, a pillar is a pillar and confirms to the vastu or object  and does not change even if the someone mistakes it for a man standing.<ref name=":1">Adhikary, Jaya. (2003) Ph. D. Thesis Title : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/137458/4/04_chapter_01.pdf The Nyaya Concepts of Prama Pramana and Pramanya :  A critical study.]'' University of North Bengal</ref>  

Here for the sake of clarity, Jnana is considered as general knowledge, which on analysis or cognizance reveals true knowledge is called Prama or valid knowledge, and when this revelation is false it is called aprama or invalid knowledge.  

Here for the sake of clarity, Jnana is considered as general knowledge, which on analysis or cognizance reveals true knowledge is called Prama or valid knowledge, and when this revelation is false it is called aprama or invalid knowledge.  

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

According to Shabdakalpadhruma the term Pramana (प्रमाणम्) is derived from the dhatu मा (मा॒ माने) in the sense of measurement and cognition with an upasarga (prefix) प्र in the sense of प्रकृष्टः and pratyaya (suffix) lyut (ल्युट्). The suffix 'lyut', being in the instrumental case. Pramana means the instrument by which some thing is rightly cognized.   

According to Shabdakalpadhruma the term Pramana (प्रमाणम्) is derived from the dhatu मा (मा॒ङ् माने) used in the sense of measurement and cognition with an upasarga (prefix) प्र which is used in the sense of प्रकृष्टः and the pratyaya (suffix) lyut (ल्युट्). The suffix 'lyut', being in the instrumental case. Pramana means the instrument by which some thing is rightly cognized. According to Prof. Korada Subrahmanyam,<ref>Paper Presentation by Prof. K. Subrahmanayam titled ''[https://groups.google.com/d/msg/bvparishat/xY1Y-wdPeSo/CKzUaFPABwAJ Pramāṇas in Indian Philosophy]'' </ref> <blockquote>''Pramāṇa is the instrument by which the reality of essence of anything is ascertained (प्रमीयते परिच्छिद्यते वस्तुतत्त्वं येन तत्प्रमाणम् – माङ् माने or डुमिञ् प्रक्षेपणे – करणे ल्युट् – करणाधिकरणयोश्च पा^० ३-३-११७, प्रमाकरणं प्रमाणम्).''</blockquote>The word Pramana signifies the instrument because (it is derived as) "by this is rightly known" (Pramiyate anena). Loosely the term stands for knowledge as well as for the means of valid knowledge but in Nyaya logic it is generally used in the second sense.<ref name=":1" />

The word Pramana signifies the instrument because (it is derived as) "by this is rightly known" (Pramiyate anena). Loosely the term stands for knowledge as well as for the means of valid knowledge but in Nyaya logic it is generally used in the second sense.<ref name=":1" />

Pramanas are in a way standards for examination, verification, modification and confirmation of our knowledge. A mention of Pramanas is made in the Taittriya Aranyaka as follows<blockquote>स्मृतिः प्रत्यक्षमैतिह्यम् । अनुमानश्चतुष्टयम् । (Tait. Aran. 1.2.1)<ref>Taittriya Aranyaka ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0)/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7 Prapathaka 1 Anuvaka 2])</ref></blockquote>Smrti, Pratyaksha, Aitihya, and Anumana are four terms.

==प्रमाणतत्वम् ॥ Pramana Tattva==

==प्रमाणतत्वम् ॥ Pramana Tattva==

While Jnana is used to denote knowledge from the psychological standpoint that helps in cognition of an object, Prama is used to indicate true knowledge in the logical sense, which denotes ability of recognizing the real nature and character of an object. The following section elaborates on the four factors which make up the system of cognition as generally agreed by scholars.  

While Jnana is used to denote knowledge from the psychological standpoint that helps in cognition of an object, Prama is used to indicate true knowledge in the logical sense, which denotes ability of recognizing the real nature and character of an object. The following section elaborates on the four factors which make up the system of cognition as generally agreed by scholars.  

== Four Factors of Cognition ==

== अर्थतत्वम् ॥ Artha Tattva ==

Four basic factors make up the system of recognition. Vatsyayana Bhashya of Nyayasutras defines the 4 components as follows<blockquote>तत्र यस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य प्रवृत्तिः स प्रमाता । स येनार्थं प्रमिणोति तत्प्रमाणं । योऽर्थः प्रतीयते तत्प्रमेयं । यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । चतसृषु चैवंविधास्वार्थतत्वं परिसमाप्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5">Pt. Gangadhara Sastri Tailanga. (1896) The Nyayasutras with Vatsayana's Bhashya and Extracts from the Nyayavarttika and the Tatparyatika. ([https://archive.org/details/NyayaBhashyam-GangadharaTailanga/page/n48 Page 48 of PDF]) Benares : E. J. Lazarus & Co</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatra yasyepsājihāsāprayuktasya pravr̥ttiḥ sa pramātā । sa yenārthaṁ pramiṇoti tatpramāṇaṁ । yo'rthaḥ pratīyate tatprameyaṁ । yadarthavijñānaṁ sā pramitiḥ । catasr̥ṣu caivaṁvidhāsvārthatatvaṁ parisamāpyate । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)</blockquote>

Four basic factors make up the system of recognition according to Nyaya darshana. Since all the fundamental aspects of cognition are explained in this shastra sutras from Nyaya are taken as a standard. Vatsyayana Bhashya of Nyayasutras defines the 4 components as follows<blockquote>तत्र यस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य प्रवृत्तिः स प्रमाता । स येनार्थं प्रमिणोति तत्प्रमाणं । योऽर्थः प्रतीयते तत्प्रमेयं । यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । चतसृषु चैवंविधास्वार्थतत्वं परिसमाप्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5">Pt. Gangadhara Sastri Tailanga. (1896) The Nyayasutras with Vatsayana's Bhashya and Extracts from the Nyayavarttika and the Tatparyatika. ([https://archive.org/details/NyayaBhashyam-GangadharaTailanga/page/n48 Page 48 of PDF]) Benares : E. J. Lazarus & Co</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatra yasyepsājihāsāprayuktasya pravr̥ttiḥ sa pramātā । sa yenārthaṁ pramiṇoti tatpramāṇaṁ । yo'rthaḥ pratīyate tatprameyaṁ । yadarthavijñānaṁ sā pramitiḥ । catasr̥ṣu caivaṁvidhāsvārthatatvaṁ parisamāpyate । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)</blockquote>

#The Prama (प्रमा) or Pramiti  : the valid knowledge (of an object), the right understanding

#The Prama (प्रमा) or Pramiti  : the valid knowledge (of an object), the right understanding

#The Prameya (प्रमेयः) : the knowable, the object to be known, the object of valid knowledge

#The Prameya (प्रमेयः) : the knowable, the object to be known, the object of valid knowledge

== प्रमा ॥ Prama ==

== प्रमा ॥ Prama ==

A form of definitive Jnana, Prama has two aspects

A form of definitive Jnana, Prama, the valid knowledge of an object has two aspects

# Nature of the object

# Nature of the object

# Test of verification or validity

# Test of verification or validity of the nature

'''Nyaya''' : यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । yadarthavijñānaṁ sā pramitiḥ । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" />

'''Nyaya''' : यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । yadarthavijñānaṁ sā pramitiḥ । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" />

The determination of something not (previously) lodged in neither both (Sense-organs and Objects), nor in one or other of them, is Prama, the right knowledge.  

The determination of something not (previously) lodged in neither both (Sense-organs and Objects), nor in one or other of them, is Prama, the right knowledge.  

'''Vaisheshika''' : अदुष्टं विद्या । वैशेषिक-९,२.१२ ।  aduṣṭaṁ vidyā । vaiśeṣika-9,2.12 । (Vais. Sutr. 9.2.12)<ref>Vaiseshika [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Sutras]</ref> The knowledge which is not corrupted is Vidya. It is implied from this sutra that what is not corrupted and is well tested, free from Indriya doshas and Samskara doshas is nothing Prama.

'''Vaisheshika''' : अदुष्टं विद्या । वैशेषिक-९,२.१२ ।  aduṣṭaṁ vidyā । vaiśeṣika-9,2.12 । (Vais. Sutr. 9.2.12)<ref>Vaiseshika [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Sutras]</ref> The knowledge which is not corrupted is Vidya. It is implied from this sutra that what is not corrupted and is well tested, free from Indriya doshas and Samskara doshas is nothing but Prama.

There are other versions about what constitutes Prama by different Bharatiya shastras, though they have not been explicitly mentioned in sutra format.<ref name=":3" />

'''Prabhakara Mimamsa''' : They define prama or valid knowledge as immediate experience (Anubhuti). It is different from smrti or memory which is the impression of past experiences. That is to say 'valid cognition' is Apprehension. Hence according to them the truth of knowledge, praamaanya is guaranteed by its having the characteristic of immediacy. <blockquote>प्रमाणमनुभूतिः, सा स्मृतेरन्या, न सा स्मृतिः । न प्रमाणं स्मृतिः पूर्वप्रतिपत्तिव्यपेक्षणात्।<ref name=":22">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (Reprint 1978) [https://archive.org/details/jha-purvamimamsa_201412/page/n32 ''The Prabhakara  School of Purva Mimamsa''.] Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers</ref> (Prakaranapanchika)</blockquote>There are other versions about what constitutes Prama by different Bharatiya shastras, though they have not been explicitly mentioned in sutra format.<ref name=":3" />

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

|+Difference between Prama and Jnana  

|+Difference between Prama and Jnana  

!Darshana

! rowspan="2" |Darshana

!Prama

!Prama

!Jnana

!Jnana

|-

|-

!Defined as the knowledge obtained after testing the validity of an unknown entity by Pramana.

|Defined as the knowledge obtained after testing the validity of an unknown entity by Pramana.

!Defined as knowledge in general broadly.

|Defined as knowledge in general broadly.

|-

|-

|Samkhya

|Samkhya

|Knowledge of an object, undoubted and real (परीक्षितम्), previously unknown (अपूर्वनिश्चितज्ञानम्)<ref name=":4">M. Chandraiah. (2002) Ph. D. Thesis Title : ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/71380 Anupalabdhi as a Pramana. A Critical Study.]'' Tirupati : Venkateswara University</ref>

|Knowledge of an object, undoubted and real (परीक्षितम्), previously unknown (अपूर्वनिश्चितज्ञानम्)<ref name=":4">M. Chandraiah. (2002) Ph. D. Thesis Title : ''[http://hdl.handle.net/10603/71380 Anupalabdhi as a Pramana. A Critical Study.]'' Tirupati : Venkateswara University</ref>

|'''Theory of Svaprakasatva.''' Cognition (Buddhi) being जड (अचेतनम् inert), is realised by Purusha, which alone is self conscious.<ref name=":4" />

|'''Theory of Svaprakasatva.''' Cognition (Buddhi) being जड़ (अचेतनम् inert), is realised by Purusha, which alone is self conscious.<ref name=":4" />

|-

|-

|Nyaya  

|Nyaya  

Vatsyayana Bhashya for Nyaya Sutra 9 is as follows as given under each lakshana explaining the 12 kinds of Prameya given by the Sutras.

Vatsyayana Bhashya for Nyaya Sutra 9 is as follows as given under each lakshana explaining the 12 kinds of Prameya given by the Sutras.

==== आत्मा ॥ Atma ====

=== आत्मा ॥ Atma ===

* '''Sutra''' : इच्छाद्वेषप्रयत्नसुखदुःखज्ञानानि आत्मनः लिङ्गं इति ।।१०।। {आत्मलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> icchādveṣaprayatnasukhaduḥkhajñānāni ātmanaḥ liṅgaṁ iti ।।10।। {ātmalakṣaṇam} Meaning : Desire (इच्छा), desire to keep away from something (द्वेषः), Action (प्रयत्नः), pleasure, pain and knowledge (सुखदुःखज्ञानानि) are the marks of Atma.

* '''Sutra''' : इच्छाद्वेषप्रयत्नसुखदुःखज्ञानानि आत्मनः लिङ्गं इति ।।१०।। {आत्मलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> icchādveṣaprayatnasukhaduḥkhajñānāni ātmanaḥ liṅgaṁ iti ।।10।। {ātmalakṣaṇam} Meaning : Desire (इच्छा), desire to keep away from something (द्वेषः), Action (प्रयत्नः), pleasure, pain and knowledge (सुखदुःखज्ञानानि) are the marks of Atma.

* '''Bhashya''' : तत्रात्मा सर्वस्य द्रष्टा सर्वस्य भोक्ता सर्वज्ञः सर्वानुभावो । tatrātmā sarvasya draṣṭā sarvasya bhoktā sarvajñaḥ sarvānubhāvo । (Page 71 of Reference <ref name=":5" />) Atma (soul) is the drashta (perceiver of all that brings about pain and pleasure), the bhokta (experiencer of all pains and pleasures), sarvajna (knower of all knowledge), sarvanubhava (experience of all things).

* '''Bhashya''' : तत्रात्मा सर्वस्य द्रष्टा सर्वस्य भोक्ता सर्वज्ञः सर्वानुभावो । tatrātmā sarvasya draṣṭā sarvasya bhoktā sarvajñaḥ sarvānubhāvo । (Page 71 of Reference <ref name=":5" />) Atma (soul) is the drashta (perceiver of all that brings about pain and pleasure), the bhokta (experiencer of all pains and pleasures), sarvajna (knower of all knowledge), sarvanubhava (experience of all things).

==== शरीरम् ॥ Body ====

=== शरीरम् ॥ Body ===

* '''Sutra''' : चेष्टेन्द्रियार्थाश्रयः शरीरम्।।११।। {शरीरलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" />ceṣṭendriyārthāśrayaḥ śarīram।।11।। {śarīralakṣaṇam} ''w''hich means the base or location for action (चेष्टा), sense-organs  (इन्द्रियानि) and objects (अर्थः) is sharira (body).  

* '''Sutra''' : चेष्टेन्द्रियार्थाश्रयः शरीरम्।।११।। {शरीरलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" />ceṣṭendriyārthāśrayaḥ śarīram।।11।। {śarīralakṣaṇam} ''w''hich means the base or location for action (चेष्टा), sense-organs  (इन्द्रियानि) and objects (अर्थः) is sharira (body).  

* '''Bhashya''' : तस्य भोगायतनं शरीरम् । tasya bhogāyatanaṁ śarīram । The base of Atma's experiences is the body.(Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Bhashya''' : तस्य भोगायतनं शरीरम् । tasya bhogāyatanaṁ śarīram । The base of Atma's experiences is the body.(Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

==== इन्द्रियानि ॥ Sense-organs ====

=== इन्द्रियाणि ॥ Sense-organs ===

* '''Sutra''' : घ्राणरसनचक्षुस्त्वक्श्रोत्राणि इन्द्रियाणि भूतेभ्यः ।।१२।। {इन्द्रियलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> ghrāṇarasanacakṣustvakśrotrāṇi indriyāṇi bhūtebhyaḥ ।।12।। {indriyalakṣaṇam} It means the sense organs ( organs of smell, taste, vision, sensation, audition) are made from material substances (panchamahabhutas).  

* '''Sutra''' : घ्राणरसनचक्षुस्त्वक्श्रोत्राणि इन्द्रियाणि भूतेभ्यः ।।१२।। {इन्द्रियलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> ghrāṇarasanacakṣustvakśrotrāṇi indriyāṇi bhūtebhyaḥ ।।12।। {indriyalakṣaṇam} It means the sense organs ( organs of smell, taste, vision, sensation, audition) are made from material substances (panchamahabhutas).  

* '''Bhashya''' : भोगसाधनानीन्द्रियाणि । bhogasādhanānīndriyāṇi । Indriyas are the instruments of experience for the Atma. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Bhashya''' : भोगसाधनानीन्द्रियाणि । bhogasādhanānīndriyāṇi । Indriyas are the instruments of experience for the Atma. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

==== अर्थः ॥ Objects ====

=== अर्थः ॥ Objects ===

* '''Sutra''' : गन्धरसरूपस्पर्शशब्दाः पृथिव्यादिगुणाः तदर्थाः।।१४।।<ref name=":8" /> gandharasarūpasparśaśabdāḥ pr̥thivyādiguṇāḥ tadarthāḥ।।14।। Meaning : Odour, Taste, Color, Touch and Sound which are the qualities of material substances (prthvi, apah, tejah, vayu and akasha).

* '''Sutra''' : गन्धरसरूपस्पर्शशब्दाः पृथिव्यादिगुणाः तदर्थाः।।१४।।<ref name=":8" /> gandharasarūpasparśaśabdāḥ pr̥thivyādiguṇāḥ tadarthāḥ।।14।। Meaning : Odour, Taste, Color, Touch and Sound which are the qualities of material substances (prthvi, apah, tejah, vayu and akasha).

* '''Bhashya''' : भोक्तव्या इन्द्रियार्थाः । bhoktavyā indriyārthāḥ । Arthas are Objects to be experienced. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Bhashya''' : भोक्तव्या इन्द्रियार्थाः । bhoktavyā indriyārthāḥ । Arthas are Objects to be experienced. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

==== बुद्धिः ॥ Knowledge ====

=== बुद्धिः ॥ Knowledge ===

* '''Sutra''' : बुद्धिः उपलब्धिः ज्ञानं इति अनर्थान्तरम्।।१५।।{बुद्धिलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> ''buddhiḥ upalabdhiḥ jñānaṁ iti anarthāntaram।।15।।{buddhilakṣaṇam}'' Essence is that Buddhi is synonymous with knowledge (ज्ञानं) in Nyaya darshana.

* '''Sutra''' : बुद्धिः उपलब्धिः ज्ञानं इति अनर्थान्तरम्।।१५।।{बुद्धिलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> ''buddhiḥ upalabdhiḥ jñānaṁ iti anarthāntaram।।15।।{buddhilakṣaṇam}'' Essence is that Buddhi is synonymous with knowledge (ज्ञानं) in Nyaya darshana.

* '''Bhashya''' : भोगो बुद्धिः । bhogo buddhiḥ । Experience form of Knowledge (Jnana and Upalabdhi) is Buddhi.

* '''Bhashya''' : भोगो बुद्धिः । bhogo buddhiḥ । Experience form of Knowledge (Jnana and Upalabdhi) is Buddhi.

==== मनः ॥ Manas ====

=== मनः ॥ Manas ===

* '''Sutra''' : युगपत्ज्ञानानुत्पत्तिः मनसः लिङ्गम्।।१६।।{मनोलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> yugapatjñānānutpattiḥ manasaḥ liṅgam।।16।।{manolakṣaṇam} which means that the non-appearance of simultaneous experience of all the senses is indicative of presence of Manas.

* '''Sutra''' : युगपत्ज्ञानानुत्पत्तिः मनसः लिङ्गम्।।१६।।{मनोलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> yugapatjñānānutpattiḥ manasaḥ liṅgam।।16।।{manolakṣaṇam} which means that the non-appearance of simultaneous experience of all the senses is indicative of presence of Manas.

* '''Bhashya''' : सर्वार्थोपलब्धौ नेन्द्रियाणि प्रभवन्तीति सर्वविषयमन्तःकरणं मनः । sarvārthopalabdhau nendriyāṇi prabhavantīti sarvaviṣayamantaḥkaraṇaṁ manaḥ । Manas is that internal organ which is capable of experiencing (sukha and dukha) all things of which even the Indriyas (being limited in their scope) are incapable to do. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Bhashya''' : सर्वार्थोपलब्धौ नेन्द्रियाणि प्रभवन्तीति सर्वविषयमन्तःकरणं मनः । sarvārthopalabdhau nendriyāṇi prabhavantīti sarvaviṣayamantaḥkaraṇaṁ manaḥ । Manas is that internal organ which is capable of experiencing (sukha and dukha) all things of which even the Indriyas (being limited in their scope) are incapable to do. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

==== प्रवृत्तिः ॥ Action ====

=== प्रवृत्तिः ॥ Action ===

* '''Sutra''' : प्रवृत्तिः वाग्बुद्धिशरीरारम्भः।।१७।।{प्रवृत्तिलक्षणम्} pravr̥ttiḥ vāgbuddhiśarīrārambhaḥ।।17।।{pravr̥ttilakṣaṇam} It means that Activity consists of Speech, action of Mind and action of Body.

* '''Sutra''' : प्रवृत्तिः वाग्बुद्धिशरीरारम्भः।।१७।।{प्रवृत्तिलक्षणम्} pravr̥ttiḥ vāgbuddhiśarīrārambhaḥ।।17।।{pravr̥ttilakṣaṇam} It means that Activity consists of Speech, action of Mind and action of Body.

==== दोषः ॥ Dosha ====

=== दोषः ॥ Dosha ===

* '''Sutra''' : प्रवर्त्तनालक्षणाः दोषाः।।१८।।{दोषलक्षणम्} pravarttanālakṣaṇāḥ doṣāḥ।।18।।{doṣalakṣaṇam} Doshas (defects imperfection) are the cause for inciting a person into activity.

* '''Sutra''' : प्रवर्त्तनालक्षणाः दोषाः।।१८।।{दोषलक्षणम्} pravarttanālakṣaṇāḥ doṣāḥ।।18।।{doṣalakṣaṇam} Doshas (defects imperfection) are the cause for inciting a person into activity.

* '''Bhashya''' : शरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिसुखवेदनानां निवृत्तिकारणं प्रवृत्तिः दोषाश्च । नास्येदं शरीरमपूर्वमनुत्तरं च । śarīrendriyārthabuddhisukhavedanānāṁ nivr̥ttikāraṇaṁ pravr̥ttiḥ doṣāśca । nāsyedaṁ śarīramapūrvamanuttaraṁ ca । Body, sense-organs, objects (artha), pleasure and pain are all products of Activity and Defects (doshas such as raga etc). (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Bhashya''' : शरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिसुखवेदनानां निवृत्तिकारणं प्रवृत्तिः दोषाश्च । नास्येदं शरीरमपूर्वमनुत्तरं च । śarīrendriyārthabuddhisukhavedanānāṁ nivr̥ttikāraṇaṁ pravr̥ttiḥ doṣāśca । nāsyedaṁ śarīramapūrvamanuttaraṁ ca । Body, sense-organs, objects (artha), pleasure and pain are all products of Activity and Defects (doshas such as raga etc). (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

==== प्रेत्यभावः ॥ Rebirth ====

=== प्रेत्यभावः ॥ Rebirth ===

* '''Sutra''' : पुनरुत्पत्तिः प्रेत्यभावः ।।१९।।{प्रेत्यभावलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> punarutpattiḥ pretyabhāvaḥ ।।19।।{pretyabhāvalakṣaṇam} Rebirth which consists of being born again after death is Pretyabhava.

* '''Sutra''' : पुनरुत्पत्तिः प्रेत्यभावः ।।१९।।{प्रेत्यभावलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> punarutpattiḥ pretyabhāvaḥ ।।19।।{pretyabhāvalakṣaṇam} Rebirth which consists of being born again after death is Pretyabhava.

* '''Bhashya''' : पूर्वशरीराणामादिर्नास्ति उत्तरेषामपवर्गो अन्तः इति प्रेत्यभावः । pūrvaśarīrāṇāmādirnāsti uttareṣāmapavargo antaḥ iti pretyabhāvaḥ । For an Atma this body is neither the first one nor is the last. In terms of previous bodies there is no such thing as first one. In terms of future existence of bodies Apavarga is the last. This indicates existence of rebirth. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Bhashya''' : पूर्वशरीराणामादिर्नास्ति उत्तरेषामपवर्गो अन्तः इति प्रेत्यभावः । pūrvaśarīrāṇāmādirnāsti uttareṣāmapavargo antaḥ iti pretyabhāvaḥ । For an Atma this body is neither the first one nor is the last. In terms of previous bodies there is no such thing as first one. In terms of future existence of bodies Apavarga is the last. This indicates existence of rebirth. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

==== फलम् ॥ Result ====

=== फलम् ॥ Result ===

* '''Sutra''' : प्रवृत्तिदोषजनितः अर्थः फलम्।।२०।।{फललक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> pravr̥ttidoṣajanitaḥ arthaḥ phalam।।20।।{phalalakṣaṇam} Meaning : Result in the form of Artha (Object) is what is produced due to action and dosha.

* '''Sutra''' : प्रवृत्तिदोषजनितः अर्थः फलम्।।२०।।{फललक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> pravr̥ttidoṣajanitaḥ arthaḥ phalam।।20।।{phalalakṣaṇam} Meaning : Result in the form of Artha (Object) is what is produced due to action and dosha.

* '''Bhashya''' : ससाधनसुखदःखोपभोगः फलम् । sasādhanasukhadaḥkhopabhogaḥ phalam । Experience of pleasure, pain along with the instruments leading to them is the Result. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Bhashya''' : ससाधनसुखदःखोपभोगः फलम् । sasādhanasukhadaḥkhopabhogaḥ phalam । Experience of pleasure, pain along with the instruments leading to them is the Result. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

==== दुःख ॥ Pain ====

=== दुःखम् ॥ Pain ===

* '''Sutra''' : बाधनालक्षणं दुःखम्।।२१।।{दुःखलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> bādhanālakṣaṇaṁ duḥkham।।21।।{duḥkhalakṣaṇam} Meaning : The experience of suffering or injury consists of Pain.

* '''Sutra''' : बाधनालक्षणं दुःखम्।।२१।।{दुःखलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> bādhanālakṣaṇaṁ duḥkham।।21।।{duḥkhalakṣaṇam} Meaning : The experience of suffering or injury consists of Pain.

* '''Bhashya''' : दुःखमिति, नेदमनुकूलवेदनीयस्य सुखस्य प्रतीतेः प्रत्याख्यानं । किं तर्हि जन्मन एवेदम् । duḥkhamiti, nedamanukūlavedanīyasya sukhasya pratīteḥ pratyākhyānaṁ । kiṁ tarhi janmana evedam । By the special mention of 'Pain' (and the omission of 'pleasure') it is not meant that there is no pleasure at all. Birth is intended as Pain here. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Bhashya''' : दुःखमिति, नेदमनुकूलवेदनीयस्य सुखस्य प्रतीतेः प्रत्याख्यानं । किं तर्हि जन्मन एवेदम् । duḥkhamiti, nedamanukūlavedanīyasya sukhasya pratīteḥ pratyākhyānaṁ । kiṁ tarhi janmana evedam । By the special mention of 'Pain' (and the omission of 'pleasure') it is not meant that there is no pleasure at all. Birth is intended as Pain here. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

==== अपवर्गः ॥ Release from Worldly Bonds ====

=== अपवर्गः ॥ Release from Worldly Bonds ===

* '''Sutra''' : तदत्यन्तविमोक्षः अपवर्गः।।२२।।{अपवर्गलक्षणम्} <ref name=":8" /> tadatyantavimokṣaḥ apavargaḥ।।22।।{apavargalakṣaṇam} Absolute release from the aforesaid Dukha or pain etc is Apavarga.

* '''Sutra''' : तदत्यन्तविमोक्षः अपवर्गः।।२२।।{अपवर्गलक्षणम्} <ref name=":8" /> tadatyantavimokṣaḥ apavargaḥ।।22।।{apavargalakṣaṇam} Absolute release from the aforesaid Dukha or pain etc is Apavarga.

* '''Bhashya''' : सुखसाधनस्य दुःखानुषङ्गदुखेन अविप्रयोगाद्विविध-बन्धनायोगाद्दुःखमिति समाधिभावनमुपदिश्यते समाहितो भावयति भावययन्निर्विद्यते विर्विण्णस्य वैराग्यं विरक्तस्यापवर्ग इति । जन्ममरणप्रवन्धोच्छेदः सर्वदुःखप्रहाणमपवर्ग इति । अस्य तु तत्वज्ञानादपवर्गो मिथ्थाज्ञानात्संसार इति । sukhasādhanasya duḥkhānuṣaṅgadukhena aviprayogādvividha-bandhanāyogādduḥkhamiti samādhibhāvanamupadiśyate samāhito bhāvayati bhāvayayannirvidyate virviṇṇasya vairāgyaṁ viraktasyāpavarga iti । janmamaraṇapravandhocchedaḥ sarvaduḥkhaprahāṇamapavarga iti । asya tu tatvajñānādapavargo miththājñānātsaṁsāra iti ।(Vats. Bhas. Page 71 and 72)<ref name=":5" />

* '''Bhashya''' : सुखसाधनस्य दुःखानुषङ्गदुखेन अविप्रयोगाद्विविध-बन्धनायोगाद्दुःखमिति समाधिभावनमुपदिश्यते समाहितो भावयति भावययन्निर्विद्यते विर्विण्णस्य वैराग्यं विरक्तस्यापवर्ग इति । जन्ममरणप्रवन्धोच्छेदः सर्वदुःखप्रहाणमपवर्ग इति । अस्य तु तत्वज्ञानादपवर्गो मिथ्थाज्ञानात्संसार इति । sukhasādhanasya duḥkhānuṣaṅgadukhena aviprayogādvividha-bandhanāyogādduḥkhamiti samādhibhāvanamupadiśyate samāhito bhāvayati bhāvayayannirvidyate virviṇṇasya vairāgyaṁ viraktasyāpavarga iti । janmamaraṇapravandhocchedaḥ sarvaduḥkhaprahāṇamapavarga iti । asya tu tatvajñānādapavargo miththājñānātsaṁsāra iti ।(Vats. Bhas. Page 71 and 72)<ref name=":5" />

* Dvaita school also accepts that pramana is that which comprehends an object as it is, yatartha pramanam.  

* Dvaita school also accepts that pramana is that which comprehends an object as it is, yatartha pramanam.  

====प्रमाणसङ्ख्या ॥ Number of Pramanas====

====प्रमाणसङ्ख्या ॥ Number of Pramanas====

There are atleast ten kinds of Pramanas, but in the matter of recognizing different pramanas, different schools of Indian Philosophy adopted divergent schemes. The number of pramanas accepted by the important schools vary from one to eight. (Page 33 of Reference<ref name=":32">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy. [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf (Chapter 2)] University of North Bengal</ref>)

There are atleast ten kinds of Pramanas, but in the matter of recognizing different pramanas, different schools of Indian Philosophy adopted divergent schemes. The number of pramanas accepted by the important schools vary from one to eight. (Page 33 of Reference<ref name=":3" />)

#Charvakas accept pratyaksha pramana (perception) only as a single means of knowledge.

#Charvakas accept pratyaksha pramana (perception) only as a single means of knowledge.

#Vaiseshikas and Nastika Darshanas accept pratyaksha (perception) and anumana (inference).

#Nastika Darshanas accept pratyaksha (perception) and anumana (inference).

#Samkhya, Yoga, Dvaita, Visishtaadvaita schools of Uttara Mimamsa recognize 3 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda or agama (verbal testimony) as the means of knowledge.

#Vaiseshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Dvaita, Visishtaadvaita schools of Uttara Mimamsa recognize 3 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda or agama (verbal testimony) as the means of knowledge.

#Naiyaayikas recognize 4 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference), shabda and Upamana (comparison) as the means of knowledge.

#Naiyaayikas recognize 4 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference), shabda and Upamana (comparison) as the means of knowledge.

#Prabhakara school of Purva Mimamsa accepts 5 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda or agama (verbal testimony) and Upamana (comparison) and arthaapatti (presumption) as the means of knowledge.

#Prabhakara school of Purva Mimamsa accepts 5 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda or agama (verbal testimony) and Upamana (comparison) and arthaapatti (presumption) as the means of knowledge.

#Kumarilabhatta school of Purva Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta of Uttara Mimamsa school both accept 6 pramanas - Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Shabda or aagama (verbal testimony) and Upamana (comparison), Arthaapatti (presumption) and Anupalabdhi (negation or non-apprehension) as the means of knowledge.

#Kumarilabhatta school of Purva Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta of Uttara Mimamsa school both accept 6 pramanas - Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Shabda or Agama (verbal testimony), Upamana (comparison), Arthaapatti (presumption) and Anupalabdhi (negation or non-apprehension) as the means of knowledge.

#Pauranikas admit the above 6 with the addition of Sambhava (probability or inclusion)  and Aitihya (tradition or rumour).

#Pauranikas admit the above 6 with the addition of Sambhava (probability or inclusion)  and Aitihya (tradition or rumour).

#Tantrikas recognize, along with the above 8, Chesta (indication) as the means of knowledge.

#Tantrikas recognize, along with the above 8, Chesta (indication) as the means of knowledge.

== References ==

== References ==