Changes

The sutra charanas portray different facets of social life and customs of people. People attained a high degree of culture long before the Sutra works came into existence as seen from the Brahmana works.  

The sutra charanas portray different facets of social life and customs of people. People attained a high degree of culture long before the Sutra works came into existence as seen from the Brahmana works.  

=== श्रौतसूत्राणि || Shrautasutras ===

 

==== श्रौतसूत्राणि || Shrautasutras ====

They include procedures of great Shrauta yajnas as described in the Brahmanas of particular veda shakas. They also include Paribhasha sutras which imply general rules and their application in the interpretation of the Vedas. Shutis are vedas and the activities (primarily yajnas) described there are Shrauta karmas. The vidhis pertaining to Shrauta karmas are given in Shrauta Sutras. They detail the 14 yajnas (major) laid down in the Brahmana and thus Shrautasutras are highly related to Brahmanas. However, not all yajnas discussed in Shrautasutras are found in Brahmanas.

They include procedures of great Shrauta yajnas as described in the Brahmanas of particular veda shakas. They also include Paribhasha sutras which imply general rules and their application in the interpretation of the Vedas. Shutis are vedas and the activities (primarily yajnas) described there are Shrauta karmas. The vidhis pertaining to Shrauta karmas are given in Shrauta Sutras. They detail the 14 yajnas (major) laid down in the Brahmana and thus Shrautasutras are highly related to Brahmanas. However, not all yajnas discussed in Shrautasutras are found in Brahmanas.

[[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] plays an important role in all Shrauta (or Vaidika) and Grhya (or Smarta) karmas. Shrauta karmas are performed using the three agnis namely - Garhapatya, Ahvaniya and Dakshinagni, which are kindled by the process of [[Agnyadhana (अग्न्याधानम्)|Agnyadhana]] at the prescribed time for prescribed varnas of people. Two other agnis namely Sabhya (सभ्य) and Avasathya (आवसथ्य) are also kindled during the Agnyadhana process, however they are not used widely and the commonly prescribed shrauta karmas are performed using the three agnis called as [[Tretagni (त्रेताग्निः)|Tretagni]]. The deviations or digressions that happen during shrauta karmas are to be removed by performing expiatory activities called Prayaschittas mentioned in these sutra texts.<ref name=":12" />

[[Agni (अग्निः)|Agni]] plays an important role in all Shrauta (or Vaidika) and Grhya (or Smarta) karmas. Shrauta karmas are performed using the three agnis namely - Garhapatya, Ahvaniya and Dakshinagni, which are kindled by the process of [[Agnyadhana (अग्न्याधानम्)|Agnyadhana]] at the prescribed time for prescribed varnas of people. Two other agnis namely Sabhya (सभ्य) and Avasathya (आवसथ्य) are also kindled during the Agnyadhana process, however they are not used widely and the commonly prescribed shrauta karmas are performed using the three agnis called as [[Tretagni (त्रेताग्निः)|Tretagni]]. The deviations or digressions that happen during shrauta karmas are to be removed by performing expiatory activities called Prayaschittas mentioned in these sutra texts.<ref name=":12" />

==== गृह्यसूत्राणि || Grhyasutras  ====

=== गृह्यसूत्राणि || Grhyasutras  ===

They deal with the rules and regulations pertaining to the social and domestic activities and customs prescribed to a grhasta and his family. They detail the samskaras, seven kinds of Grhyayajnas called as [[Pakayajnas (पाकयज्ञाः)|Pakayajnas]], and [[Panchamahayajnas (पञ्चमहायज्ञाः)|Panchamahayajnas]]. These texts have very little relationship with the Brahmanas. The Grhyagni (or Smartagni) is a single fire hence called Ekagni, is kindled at the time of vivaha samskara of a person and is used to perform the grhyakarmas of the person and his family. The mantras that are recited in the performance of samskaras, such as Upanayana, are from the Veda samhitas of that particular shaka. Again just like the Shrautasutras, not all mantras given in the Grhyasutras are traceable to the extant Veda samhitas.<ref name=":12" />

They deal with the rules and regulations pertaining to the social and domestic activities and customs prescribed to a grhasta and his family. They detail the samskaras, seven kinds of Grhyayajnas called as [[Pakayajnas (पाकयज्ञाः)|Pakayajnas]], and [[Panchamahayajnas (पञ्चमहायज्ञाः)|Panchamahayajnas]]. These texts have very little relationship with the Brahmanas. The Grhyagni (or Smartagni) is a single fire hence called Ekagni, is kindled at the time of vivaha samskara of a person and is used to perform the grhyakarmas of the person and his family. The mantras that are recited in the performance of samskaras, such as Upanayana, are from the Veda samhitas of that particular shaka. Again just like the Shrautasutras, not all mantras given in the Grhyasutras are traceable to the extant Veda samhitas.<ref name=":12" />

Consider the case of Antyeshti or funeral ceremony that has been treated by both Shrauta and Grhyasutras. It is important to note that the funeral of an Ahitagni (one who had set up [[Tretagni (त्रेताग्निः)|tretagni]] and conducted Shrautayajnas) involves the employment of the three fires, which is not applicable as a common rite for the funeral of each and every person. But the funeral ceremony is common to one and all. Thus it is clear that funeral, as a whole, does not belong to the exclusive sphere of Shrauta karmas. The purvapaksha that - since three fires are used in the funeral ceremonies hence it is a Shrautakarma, does not hold good. Further, unlike the Shrauta ceremonies, the funeral of an Ahitagni is performed by the relatives of the deceased and not by a number of rtviks, who play an important role in Shrauta rites. Thus the uttarapaksha holds ground that the inclusion of funeral rites in the subject matter of Grhyasutras is, therefore, entirely compatible with the essential nature of these treatises which deal with domestic rites in general. The Grhyasutras describe the funeral rites for those who had set up tretagni in their life-time and also for those who did not.<ref name=":0" />

Consider the case of Antyeshti or funeral ceremony that has been treated by both Shrauta and Grhyasutras. It is important to note that the funeral of an Ahitagni (one who had set up [[Tretagni (त्रेताग्निः)|tretagni]] and conducted Shrautayajnas) involves the employment of the three fires, which is not applicable as a common rite for the funeral of each and every person. But the funeral ceremony is common to one and all. Thus it is clear that funeral, as a whole, does not belong to the exclusive sphere of Shrauta karmas. The purvapaksha that - since three fires are used in the funeral ceremonies hence it is a Shrautakarma, does not hold good. Further, unlike the Shrauta ceremonies, the funeral of an Ahitagni is performed by the relatives of the deceased and not by a number of rtviks, who play an important role in Shrauta rites. Thus the uttarapaksha holds ground that the inclusion of funeral rites in the subject matter of Grhyasutras is, therefore, entirely compatible with the essential nature of these treatises which deal with domestic rites in general. The Grhyasutras describe the funeral rites for those who had set up tretagni in their life-time and also for those who did not.<ref name=":0" />

==== धर्मसूत्राणि || Dharmasutras  ====

=== धर्मसूत्राणि || Dharmasutras  ===

They are connected closely with the Grhyasutras in their contents but are elaborate with the laws of social, religious, political and economic life of the people. They deal with Varna, Ashrama and Rajadharmas. They take their concepts from the Vedas,  and  deal with social customs common to all the Veda shakas. Thus the concept is not confined to followers of one particular shaka whereas the ceremonies or yajnas described therein are undoubtedly inclined to follow the traditions of their own shakas. No Dharmasutra associated with Atharvaveda is available at present, though earlier works like Patanjali's Mahabhashya mentioned their existence. Examples of Dharmasutras include Baudhayana and Apastamba Dharmasutras.

They are connected closely with the Grhyasutras in their contents but are elaborate with the laws of social, religious, political and economic life of the people. They deal with Varna, Ashrama and Rajadharmas. They take their concepts from the Vedas,  and  deal with social customs common to all the Veda shakas. Thus the concept is not confined to followers of one particular shaka whereas the ceremonies or yajnas described therein are undoubtedly inclined to follow the traditions of their own shakas. No Dharmasutra associated with Atharvaveda is available at present, though earlier works like Patanjali's Mahabhashya mentioned their existence. Examples of Dharmasutras include Baudhayana and Apastamba Dharmasutras.

Grhyasutras include the following topics which are elaborate in the Dharmasutras : Domestic fire, Grhyayajnas, yajnas involving cooked food, marriage, pumsavana, jatakarma, upanayana and other samskaras, rules for students, snatakas and anadhyayana, shraddha and offerings, madhuparka. Dharmasutras also contain rules on some of the above topics such as marriage and samskaras, Brahmacharya, snataka etc. While both of them contain similar topics, for example, duties of a Brahmachari are meagerly dealt with in grhyasutras as compared with the corresponding dharmasutra. Some sutras are common to both grhya and dharmasutras. Again there are points of difference between the dharmasutras and Smrtigranthas such as Yajnavalkya smrti and Manusmrti which will be discussed in Smrtis.<ref name=":3" />

Grhyasutras include the following topics which are elaborate in the Dharmasutras : Domestic fire, Grhyayajnas, yajnas involving cooked food, marriage, pumsavana, jatakarma, upanayana and other samskaras, rules for students, snatakas and anadhyayana, shraddha and offerings, madhuparka. Dharmasutras also contain rules on some of the above topics such as marriage and samskaras, Brahmacharya, snataka etc. While both of them contain similar topics, for example, duties of a Brahmachari are meagerly dealt with in grhyasutras as compared with the corresponding dharmasutra. Some sutras are common to both grhya and dharmasutras. Again there are points of difference between the dharmasutras and Smrtigranthas such as Yajnavalkya smrti and Manusmrti which will be discussed in Smrtis.<ref name=":3" />

==== शुल्बसूत्राणि || Sulbasutras ====

=== शुल्बसूत्राणि || Shulbasutras ===

Associated mainly with Shrautasutras, these sutras deal with measurements and construction of the yajna vedi to conduct shrauta yajnas. They are the earliest available texts of geometry given to the world by the Vedic era. Example: Baudhayana and Apastamba Sulbasutras. One of the prime occupations of the vedic people, performing yajnas, required altars or yajna-vedis of prescribed shapes and sizes. Sulbasutras came into existence by recognizing the fact that manuals would be of immense help in constructing such altars. These texts were primarily to assist the adhvaryus in the construction of altars designed for the performance of a variety of yajnas. Thus Sulbasutras are associated with Shrautasutras. Chiti (चितिः) or fire altars are of two types, based on their usage in

Associated mainly with Shrautasutras, these sutras deal with measurements and construction of the yajna vedi to conduct shrauta yajnas. They are the earliest available texts of geometry given to the world by the Vedic era. Example: Baudhayana and Apastamba Sulbasutras. One of the prime occupations of the vedic people, performing yajnas, required altars or yajna-vedis of prescribed shapes and sizes. Sulbasutras came into existence by recognizing the fact that manuals would be of immense help in constructing such altars. These texts were primarily to assist the adhvaryus in the construction of altars designed for the performance of a variety of yajnas. Thus Sulbasutras are associated with Shrautasutras. Chiti (चितिः) or fire altars are of two types, based on their usage in

* नित्यकर्म - daily ritual  

* नित्यकर्म - daily ritual  

As there was great progress in the departments of human knowledge during the sutra period, the scope of their economic activities had extended beyond agriculture and cattle rearing. In these texts we find expansion of the cultural and economic scopes leading to new occupations and branching out into new spheres of life. The services of teachers, administrators, physicians, singers, dancers, fishermen, hunters, barbers, washermen, cattle herdsmen, astrologers, messengers, medicants, butchers, boatmen, and distillers are alluded to in these texts. While the varna and ashrama systems are discussed in detail in other articles, here a few points of importance regarding the special aspects of economic life are summarized.<ref name=":0" />

As there was great progress in the departments of human knowledge during the sutra period, the scope of their economic activities had extended beyond agriculture and cattle rearing. In these texts we find expansion of the cultural and economic scopes leading to new occupations and branching out into new spheres of life. The services of teachers, administrators, physicians, singers, dancers, fishermen, hunters, barbers, washermen, cattle herdsmen, astrologers, messengers, medicants, butchers, boatmen, and distillers are alluded to in these texts. While the varna and ashrama systems are discussed in detail in other articles, here a few points of importance regarding the special aspects of economic life are summarized.<ref name=":0" />

==== Varna System ====

=== वर्णव्यवस्था ॥ Varna System ===

Occupational activities defined by [[Varna Dharma (वर्णधर्मः)|varna dharmas]] were associated with the four varnas that people were born into and followed as a rule in the earlier times. According to the Dharmasutras, Brahmanas (Brahmins) were to practice the occupation of teaching and practicing Vedas, and included the rtviks (priests) and purohits. Kshatriyas were involved in administration, military service and strategy. Trade and commerce, agriculture and cattle rearing were associated with the Vaishya varna. Shudras were involved in carpentry, fishing, hunting, and service to other varna people in various capacities.  Baudhayana Dharmasutras (1.10) and other texts discuss the topics related to varnas and their activities extensively. Here the Gautama Dharmasutra<ref name=":6" />defined activities of various varnas are alluded to as an example. <blockquote>ब्राह्मनस्याधिकाः प्रवचनयाजनप्रतिग्रहाः ॥२॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.2)</blockquote><blockquote>राज्ञोऽधिकं रक्षणं सर्वभूतानाम् ॥७॥ न्याय्यदण्डत्वम् ॥८॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.7, 8)</blockquote><blockquote>वैश्यस्याधिकं कृषिवणिक्पाशुपाल्यकुसीदम् ॥४९ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.49)</blockquote><blockquote>तेभ्यो वृत्तिं लिप्सेत ॥५७ ॥ शिल्पवृत्तिश् च ॥६० (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.58-59)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>Summary: Teaching, officiating during yajnas, and receiving danas (gifts) pertain to Brahmanas. To a Raja (kshtriya) pertains the protection of all creatures, justice, punishment. A vaishya, in addition, relates to agriculture, trade, cattle breeding, and money lending for interest. A shudra may seek livelihood from other varna people, and by working as artisans.  

Occupational activities defined by [[Varna Dharma (वर्णधर्मः)|varna dharmas]] were associated with the four varnas that people were born into and followed as a rule in the earlier times. According to the Dharmasutras, Brahmanas (Brahmins) were to practice the occupation of teaching and practicing Vedas, and included the rtviks (priests) and purohits. Kshatriyas were involved in administration, military service and strategy. Trade and commerce, agriculture and cattle rearing were associated with the Vaishya varna. Shudras were involved in carpentry, fishing, hunting, and service to other varna people in various capacities.  Baudhayana Dharmasutras (1.10) and other texts discuss the topics related to varnas and their activities extensively. Here the Gautama Dharmasutra<ref name=":6" />defined activities of various varnas are alluded to as an example. <blockquote>ब्राह्मनस्याधिकाः प्रवचनयाजनप्रतिग्रहाः ॥२॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.2)</blockquote><blockquote>राज्ञोऽधिकं रक्षणं सर्वभूतानाम् ॥७॥ न्याय्यदण्डत्वम् ॥८॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.7, 8)</blockquote><blockquote>वैश्यस्याधिकं कृषिवणिक्पाशुपाल्यकुसीदम् ॥४९ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.49)</blockquote><blockquote>तेभ्यो वृत्तिं लिप्सेत ॥५७ ॥ शिल्पवृत्तिश् च ॥६० (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.58-59)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>Summary: Teaching, officiating during yajnas, and receiving danas (gifts) pertain to Brahmanas. To a Raja (kshtriya) pertains the protection of all creatures, justice, punishment. A vaishya, in addition, relates to agriculture, trade, cattle breeding, and money lending for interest. A shudra may seek livelihood from other varna people, and by working as artisans.  

* Social order was highly enforced and all sections of society made their due contribution to the welfare of the society.

* Social order was highly enforced and all sections of society made their due contribution to the welfare of the society.

==== Agriculture ====

=== कृषिविज्ञानम् ॥ Agriculture ===

The most popular occupation of the Sutra period a bulk of ancient Bharatiya economy depended upon agriculture. The greater part of Bharat's population then lived in the villages and occupied themselves with agriculture, cattle breeding and local handicrafts. Self sufficiency was the key and every village produced most of its needs. A village was a well-knit economic unit in the Sutra period. Focus on agriculture and production of food grains was of high priority by all people of the society. Though it was regarded as the normal occupation of the Vaishyas, people of all varnas practiced it. The Shrauta and Grhyasutras attach great importance to agriculture and we see a number of ceremonies connected with agricultural operations in these texts. Land ownership laws, dispute resolution, share of produce, land leasing, river, canal and well irrigation systems were all well defined. Sita yajna, performed at the time of the first ploughing of the land, and many such rituals to be performed at the time of sowing the crop are described in the Grhyasutras.  <blockquote>घृतेन सीतेति सीतायज्ञस्य ७ या ओषधय इति बीजवपनीयस्य ८ (Kath. Grhy. Sutr. 71. 7-8)<ref>Kathaka Grhyasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Cultivation of soil was undoubtedly dependent on rains to a great extent and the system is more or less similar to the one that is seen in the present day. The sutras frequently refer to rituals for procuring good rains. The sutra अनूषरमविवदिष्णु भूम २ । (Asvh. Grhy. Sutr. 2.7.2)<ref name=":5">Ashvalayana Grhyasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref> clearly lays down that a house should be built on an indisputable plot of land. Farmers were generally required to pay one-sixth of the agricultural produce as land-revenue to the king.

The most popular occupation of the Sutra period a bulk of ancient Bharatiya economy depended upon agriculture. The greater part of Bharat's population then lived in the villages and occupied themselves with agriculture, cattle breeding and local handicrafts. Self sufficiency was the key and every village produced most of its needs. A village was a well-knit economic unit in the Sutra period. Focus on agriculture and production of food grains was of high priority by all people of the society. Though it was regarded as the normal occupation of the Vaishyas, people of all varnas practiced it. The Shrauta and Grhyasutras attach great importance to agriculture and we see a number of ceremonies connected with agricultural operations in these texts. Land ownership laws, dispute resolution, share of produce, land leasing, river, canal and well irrigation systems were all well defined. Sita yajna, performed at the time of the first ploughing of the land, and many such rituals to be performed at the time of sowing the crop are described in the Grhyasutras.  <blockquote>घृतेन सीतेति सीतायज्ञस्य ७ या ओषधय इति बीजवपनीयस्य ८ (Kath. Grhy. Sutr. 71. 7-8)<ref>Kathaka Grhyasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Cultivation of soil was undoubtedly dependent on rains to a great extent and the system is more or less similar to the one that is seen in the present day. The sutras frequently refer to rituals for procuring good rains. The sutra अनूषरमविवदिष्णु भूम २ । (Asvh. Grhy. Sutr. 2.7.2)<ref name=":5">Ashvalayana Grhyasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%86%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref> clearly lays down that a house should be built on an indisputable plot of land. Farmers were generally required to pay one-sixth of the agricultural produce as land-revenue to the king.

==== Animal Husbandry ====

=== पशुपालना ॥ Animal Husbandry ===

Livestock breeding was an important occupation of the Sutra period. Raising large cattle herds were considered as signs of auspiciousness and prosperity in those times. People kept big herds of cows, horses, goats and sheep. Herds of cows were so big that they were given away in hundreds and thousands as dakshina in yajnas (a form of charity to priests during yajnas). Many Shrauta yajnas describe the giving away of a large number of cows as dakshina, for example शतं सहस्राणि दक्षिणा ४३ । (Katy. Shrau. Sutr. 15.4.43)<ref>Katyayana Shrauta Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4 Adhyaya 15])</ref> a lakh cows at the time of Rajasuya yajna.

Livestock breeding was an important occupation of the Sutra period. Raising large cattle herds were considered as signs of auspiciousness and prosperity in those times. People kept big herds of cows, horses, goats and sheep. Herds of cows were so big that they were given away in hundreds and thousands as dakshina in yajnas (a form of charity to priests during yajnas). Many Shrauta yajnas describe the giving away of a large number of cows as dakshina, for example शतं सहस्राणि दक्षिणा ४३ । (Katy. Shrau. Sutr. 15.4.43)<ref>Katyayana Shrauta Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4 Adhyaya 15])</ref> a lakh cows at the time of Rajasuya yajna.

The sutras describe a number of ceremonies connected with cattle welfare and breeding. The Shugalava (a pakayajna) was performed every year. Vrshotsarga is one of the very important cattle related ceremonies (even followed in the present days) when a bull is let loose for the purposes of breeding. Many rituals for the health and protection of the cows and calves are mentioned in the Kaushika Sutras. The Manava GS (2.6) describes a ritual which was performed annually for the welfare of the horses.  

The sutras describe a number of ceremonies connected with cattle welfare and breeding. The Shugalava (a pakayajna) was performed every year. Vrshotsarga is one of the very important cattle related ceremonies (even followed in the present days) when a bull is let loose for the purposes of breeding. Many rituals for the health and protection of the cows and calves are mentioned in the Kaushika Sutras. The Manava GS (2.6) describes a ritual which was performed annually for the welfare of the horses.  

==== Handicrafts ====

=== हस्तकला ॥ Handicrafts ===

Several handicrafts, such as pottery, carpentry, metal-work, jewellery, weaving, leather-work, and glass-work were common in the sutra period, practiced on cottage industry basis. Carpenters, the indispensable artisans for society, made ploughs, carts, household furniture and chariots. Chariot making was extremely important and such skilled persons were highly distinguished forming a separate class of people from carpenters. Jewellery and ornament making was highly developed in the sutra period. We find many references to workers in stone, needlework, ropemaking, and basket-making in the sutra texts. To work for the raja one day a month without wages was the usual form of tax which the handicraftsmen were required to pay to the State. Prashna 15<ref name=":1">Baudhayana Shrauta Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4% Prashna 15])</ref> of the Baudhayana Shrautasutras discusses the Ashvamedha Yajna and here we find quite a few references to the artisans who participate in the yajna summarized as follows   

Several handicrafts, such as pottery, carpentry, metal-work, jewellery, weaving, leather-work, and glass-work were common in the sutra period, practiced on cottage industry basis. Carpenters, the indispensable artisans for society, made ploughs, carts, household furniture and chariots. Chariot making was extremely important and such skilled persons were highly distinguished forming a separate class of people from carpenters. Jewellery and ornament making was highly developed in the sutra period. We find many references to workers in stone, needlework, ropemaking, and basket-making in the sutra texts. To work for the raja one day a month without wages was the usual form of tax which the handicraftsmen were required to pay to the State. Prashna 15<ref name=":1">Baudhayana Shrauta Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4% Prashna 15])</ref> of the Baudhayana Shrautasutras discusses the Ashvamedha Yajna and here we find quite a few references to the artisans who participate in the yajna summarized as follows   

* The artisans are brought close to him (the Raja performing the Asvamedha yajna) - carpenters (तक्षाणः) chariot-makers (रथकृतः) leather-workers (मयस्कृतः), potters (कुलालः), the two types of smiths (द्वयाः कर्माराः) (for gold and iron), and receptacle-makers (नखकृतः). He then instructs the carpenter.  

* The artisans are brought close to him (the Raja performing the Asvamedha yajna) - carpenters (तक्षाणः) chariot-makers (रथकृतः) leather-workers (मयस्कृतः), potters (कुलालः), the two types of smiths (द्वयाः कर्माराः) (for gold and iron), and receptacle-makers (नखकृतः). He then instructs the carpenter.  

<blockquote>ऐणेयमजिनमुत्तरीयं ब्राह्मणस्य १७ रौरवं राजन्यस्य १८ आजं गव्यं वा वैश्यस्य १९ सर्वेषां वा गव्यमसति प्रधानत्वात् २० (Para. Grhy. Sutr. 2.5.17-20)<ref name=":7">Paraskara Grhya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>ऐणेयमजिनमुत्तरीयं ब्राह्मणस्य १७ रौरवं राजन्यस्य १८ आजं गव्यं वा वैश्यस्य १९ सर्वेषां वा गव्यमसति प्रधानत्वात् २० (Para. Grhy. Sutr. 2.5.17-20)<ref name=":7">Paraskara Grhya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>

==== Trade and Commerce ====

=== व्यापारः वाणिज्यम् च ॥ Trade and Commerce ===

Trade was no doubt an important occupation of the Sutra period. The first three varnas, the dvijas, are allowed by the Dharmasutras to practice trade. Cereals, livestock, cloth, wool, liquors, herbs, metals, hides, salt, wood, agricultural implements, ropes, utensils, condiments,  jewellery, perfumes, pepper, and arms were the main articles of trade. The sale of cooked food is also referred to in the Sutras as in क्रीतोत्पन्नेन वा वर्तेरन् १५ (Ashv. Grhy. Sutr. 4.4.15)<ref name=":5" />. Sale of the sacred Soma has been mentioned and it is amusing to note that haggling over the price of Soma is referred to in the following sections of Katyayana Shrautasutras. <blockquote>स आह सोमविक्रयिन् क्रय्यस्ते सोमो राजा इति २ क्रय्य इत्याह सोमविक्रयी ३ तं वै ते क्रीणानीति ४ क्रीणीहीत्याह सोमविक्रयी ५ कलया ते क्रीणानीति ६ भूयो वा अतः सोमो राजाऽर्हतीत्याह सोमविक्रयी ७.... (Katy. Shrau. Sutr. 7.8.2-7)<ref>Katyayana Shrautasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4 Adhyaya 7])</ref></blockquote>Sutras describe the occupations suitable to each varna and alternatives, when their original occupation is not possible, in times of adversity. Gautama Dharmasutras for example, explain that a Brahmin may live by the occupations of a Kshatriya and when these are unavailable, by the occupations of a Vaishya.  <blockquote>तस्यापण्यम् ॥ गन्धरसकृतान्नतिलशानक्षौमाजिनानि ॥ रक्तनिर्णिक्ते वाससी ॥ क्षीरं सविकारम् ॥ मूलफलपुष्पौषधमधुमांसतृणोदकापथ्यानि ॥ पशवश् च हिंसासंयोगे ॥ पुरुशवशाकुमारीवेहतश् च नित्यम् ॥ भूमिव्रीहियवाजाव्यश्वऋषभधेन्वनडुहश् चैके ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 7.8-15)<ref name=":6">Gautama Dharmasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>One may not trade in the following good: perfumes, condiments, cooked or prepared foods (कृतान्नम्), sesame seeds, hemp or linen cloth, animal skins, clothes that are dyed red or washed, milk and milk products, roots, fruits, flowers, medicinal plants, honey, flesh, grass, water, and apathya foods (अपथ्यानि), animals and those activities associated with slaughter. At all times he should refrain from trade in human beings, barren cows, heifers, and pregnant cows. Few mention that one may not also trade in land, vreehi (food grains), yava (barley), goats, sheep, horses, bulls, cows, and oxen.

Trade was no doubt an important occupation of the Sutra period. The first three varnas, the dvijas, are allowed by the Dharmasutras to practice trade. Cereals, livestock, cloth, wool, liquors, herbs, metals, hides, salt, wood, agricultural implements, ropes, utensils, condiments,  jewellery, perfumes, pepper, and arms were the main articles of trade. The sale of cooked food is also referred to in the Sutras as in क्रीतोत्पन्नेन वा वर्तेरन् १५ (Ashv. Grhy. Sutr. 4.4.15)<ref name=":5" />. Sale of the sacred Soma has been mentioned and it is amusing to note that haggling over the price of Soma is referred to in the following sections of Katyayana Shrautasutras. <blockquote>स आह सोमविक्रयिन् क्रय्यस्ते सोमो राजा इति २ क्रय्य इत्याह सोमविक्रयी ३ तं वै ते क्रीणानीति ४ क्रीणीहीत्याह सोमविक्रयी ५ कलया ते क्रीणानीति ६ भूयो वा अतः सोमो राजाऽर्हतीत्याह सोमविक्रयी ७.... (Katy. Shrau. Sutr. 7.8.2-7)<ref>Katyayana Shrautasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4 Adhyaya 7])</ref></blockquote>Sutras describe the occupations suitable to each varna and alternatives, when their original occupation is not possible, in times of adversity. Gautama Dharmasutras for example, explain that a Brahmin may live by the occupations of a Kshatriya and when these are unavailable, by the occupations of a Vaishya.  <blockquote>तस्यापण्यम् ॥ गन्धरसकृतान्नतिलशानक्षौमाजिनानि ॥ रक्तनिर्णिक्ते वाससी ॥ क्षीरं सविकारम् ॥ मूलफलपुष्पौषधमधुमांसतृणोदकापथ्यानि ॥ पशवश् च हिंसासंयोगे ॥ पुरुशवशाकुमारीवेहतश् च नित्यम् ॥ भूमिव्रीहियवाजाव्यश्वऋषभधेन्वनडुहश् चैके ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 7.8-15)<ref name=":6">Gautama Dharmasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Full Text])</ref></blockquote>One may not trade in the following good: perfumes, condiments, cooked or prepared foods (कृतान्नम्), sesame seeds, hemp or linen cloth, animal skins, clothes that are dyed red or washed, milk and milk products, roots, fruits, flowers, medicinal plants, honey, flesh, grass, water, and apathya foods (अपथ्यानि), animals and those activities associated with slaughter. At all times he should refrain from trade in human beings, barren cows, heifers, and pregnant cows. Few mention that one may not also trade in land, vreehi (food grains), yava (barley), goats, sheep, horses, bulls, cows, and oxen.

Gautama Dharmasutras mention the occupations of the four varnas; the primary activities of a dvija (the first three varnas who undergo initiation) include adhyayana (vedic studies), performing yajnas and giving away gifts (danas). <blockquote>द्विजातीनाम् अध्ययनम् इज्या दानम् ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.1)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>Further the exceptions are mentioned where vedas may be imparted by Brahmins in exchange for knowledge or money. One may note the prescribed interchange of occupations, as seen in the case where brahmins are allowed to engage in agriculture and trade if he does not do the work himself (कृषिवाणिज्ये वास्वयंकृते ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.5), including other vaishya related activities of lending money on interest.

Gautama Dharmasutras mention the occupations of the four varnas; the primary activities of a dvija (the first three varnas who undergo initiation) include adhyayana (vedic studies), performing yajnas and giving away gifts (danas). <blockquote>द्विजातीनाम् अध्ययनम् इज्या दानम् ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.1)<ref name=":6" /></blockquote>Further the exceptions are mentioned where vedas may be imparted by Brahmins in exchange for knowledge or money. One may note the prescribed interchange of occupations, as seen in the case where brahmins are allowed to engage in agriculture and trade if he does not do the work himself (कृषिवाणिज्ये वास्वयंकृते ॥ (Gaut. Dhar. Sutr. 10.5), including other vaishya related activities of lending money on interest.

Trade in exchange for commodities was prevalent as was purchasing them for money. Economic activities of the ancient Bharat were not limited to just the sale, purchase and exchange of local commodities. The Sutras portray promotion of trade and commerce by travel to distant places and even overseas journeys. Sea voyages are mentioned in Baudhayana Dharmasutras in the context of explaining the regional differences.  <blockquote>अथ_उत्तरत ऊर्णा-विक्रयः सीधु-पानम् उभयतस्-दद्भिर् व्यवहार आयुधीयकं समुद्र-संयानम् इति ॥ (Baud. Dhar. Sutr. 1.2.4)<ref>Baudhayana Dharmasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Full Text])</ref></blockquote>The peculiarities of the northerners include selling wool, drinking alcoholic beverages (सीधु-पानम्), dealing with animals having teeth in both jaws, making or dealing in weapons, travelling by the sea.<ref>Olivelle. Patrick, (1999) ''Dharmasutras. The Law Codes of Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana and Vasistha.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press (Page 137)</ref>   

Trade in exchange for commodities was prevalent as was purchasing them for money. Economic activities of the ancient Bharat were not limited to just the sale, purchase and exchange of local commodities. The Sutras portray promotion of trade and commerce by travel to distant places and even overseas journeys. Sea voyages are mentioned in Baudhayana Dharmasutras in the context of explaining the regional differences.  <blockquote>अथ_उत्तरत ऊर्णा-विक्रयः सीधु-पानम् उभयतस्-दद्भिर् व्यवहार आयुधीयकं समुद्र-संयानम् इति ॥ (Baud. Dhar. Sutr. 1.2.4)<ref>Baudhayana Dharmasutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Full Text])</ref></blockquote>The peculiarities of the northerners include selling wool, drinking alcoholic beverages (सीधु-पानम्), dealing with animals having teeth in both jaws, making or dealing in weapons, travelling by the sea.<ref>Olivelle. Patrick, (1999) ''Dharmasutras. The Law Codes of Apastamba, Gautama, Baudhayana and Vasistha.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press (Page 137)</ref>   

==== Transport and Communication ====

=== परिवहनं संचारं च ॥ Transport and Communication ===

Economic lifestyle in the Sutra period was well developed and so was trade and transport. Animal drawn carriages were the chief modes of transport on land; horses, camels, elephants, mules, bulls, asses and donkeys where the animals widely used for such travel. Wheel was invented and was very much in use in that time. Chariots were the most popular vehicles and people were skilled in building many kinds of chariots. The measurements of a chariot have been mentioned in Apastamba Shulbasutras. Loads were carried on carts drawn by bullocks. Paraskara Grhyasutra devotes whole chapters to the ceremonies of mounting a chariot (रथारोहणम् । Ratharohana) and an elephant, and it is laid down here that a woman or brahmachari should not act as a charioteer.  <blockquote>न स्त्रीब्रह्मचारिणौ सारथी स्याताम् ९ (Para. Grhy. Sutr. 3.14.9)<ref name=":7" /></blockquote>Rivers were crossed by means of boats and samkramas (causeway) was made across rivers or inundated land. Many grhyasutras lay down the rule that certain mantras should be recited at time of boarding and crossing a river.<ref name=":0" />

Economic lifestyle in the Sutra period was well developed and so was trade and transport. Animal drawn carriages were the chief modes of transport on land; horses, camels, elephants, mules, bulls, asses and donkeys where the animals widely used for such travel. Wheel was invented and was very much in use in that time. Chariots were the most popular vehicles and people were skilled in building many kinds of chariots. The measurements of a chariot have been mentioned in Apastamba Shulbasutras. Loads were carried on carts drawn by bullocks. Paraskara Grhyasutra devotes whole chapters to the ceremonies of mounting a chariot (रथारोहणम् । Ratharohana) and an elephant, and it is laid down here that a woman or brahmachari should not act as a charioteer.  <blockquote>न स्त्रीब्रह्मचारिणौ सारथी स्याताम् ९ (Para. Grhy. Sutr. 3.14.9)<ref name=":7" /></blockquote>Rivers were crossed by means of boats and samkramas (causeway) was made across rivers or inundated land. Many grhyasutras lay down the rule that certain mantras should be recited at time of boarding and crossing a river.<ref name=":0" />