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Line 14: − − [[Michael Witzel]] in his review of Indo-Iranian texts in 1995, states that ''dasa'' in the Vedic literature represented a North Iranian tribe, who were enemies of the Vedic Aryans, and ''das-yu'' meant "enemy, foreigner."<ref>{{cite journal |last=Witzel |first=Michael |authorlink=Michael Witzel |title=Autochthonous Aryans? |journal=Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies |volume=7 |number=3 |year=2001 |p=16 |url=http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/savifadok/volltexte/2008/118}}</ref> He notes that these enemies could have apparently become slaves if captured. Witzel compares the etymological root of ''dasa'' to words from other Indo-European languages that imply "enemy, foreigner", including the Avestan ''dahåka'' and ''dŋha'', Latin ''dahi'' and Greek ''daai''.<ref>Michael Witzel (1995), Early Bharat's history: Linguistic and textual parameters, in The Indo-Aryans of Ancient South Asia (Editor: G. Erdosy), de Gruyter, pages 85-125</ref> − − [[Asko Parpola]] in 2015, has proposed that ''dasa'' is related to the ancient Iranian and proto-Saka word ''daha'', which means "man".{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=100-106}} Parpola states that ''dasa'' referred only to Central Asian peoples.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=82-85, 96-106}} This is contrasted with ''arya'', the word for "man" used by, and of, Indo-European people from Central Asia. Consequently, a Vedic text that include prayers for the defeat of the ''dasa'' as an "enemy people", according to Parpola, possibly refers to people from the so-called [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC), who spoke a different language and opposed Aryan religious practices.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|pp=82-85, 96-106}} Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory, but this is controversial.<ref name="jstor.org">Colin Renfrew (1991), [http://www.jstor.org/stable/25182273 The Coming of the Aryans to Iran and India and the Cultural and Ethnic Identity of the Dāsas by Asko Parpola], Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Third Series, Vol. 1, No. 1, pages 106-109</ref> − − ''Dasa'' in [[Buddhism|Buddhist]] texts can mean "servant".<ref name=schopen>Gregory Schopen (2004), Buddhist Monks and Business Matters, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824827748, page 201</ref> In Pali language, it is used as suffix in Buddhist texts, where ''Amaya-dasa'' was translated by Davids and Stede in 1925, as a "slave by birth",<ref>Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 104</ref> ''Kila-dasa'' translated as a "bought slave",<ref>Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 217</ref> and ''Amata-dasa'' as "one who sees Amata (Sanskrit: ''Amrita'', nectar of immortality) or [[Nibbana]]".<ref>Thomas William Rhys Davids, William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 73</ref> Line 82:
Line 78: − − {{quote|Employing a slave (''dasa'') to carry the dead or to sweep ordure, urine or the leavings of food; keeping a slave naked; hurting or abusing him; or violating the chastity of a female slave shall cause the forfeiture of the value paid for him or her. Violation of the chastity shall at once earn their liberty for them.| Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry<ref name=ss>Shamasastry (Translator, 1915), [https://archive.org/stream/Arthasastra_English_Translation/Arthashastra_of_Chanakya_-_English#page/n261/mode/2up/search/slave Arthashastra of Chanakya]</ref>}} − − {{quote|When a master has connection (sex) with a pledged female slave (''dasa'') against her will, he shall be punished. When a man commits or helps another to commit rape with a female slave pledged to him, he shall not only forfeit the purchase value, but also pay a certain amount of money to her and a fine of twice the amount to the government.| Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry<ref name=ss/>}} − − {{quote|A slave (''dasa'') shall be entitled to enjoy not only whatever he has earned without prejudice to his master's work, but also the inheritance he has received from his father.| Arthashastra, Translated by Shamasastry<ref name=ss/>}} − − ==Buddhist texts== − Words related to ''dasa'' are found in early Buddhist texts, such as as ''dāso na pabbājetabbo'', which Davids and Stede translate as "the slave cannot become a Bhikkhu".<ref name=davidsstedeped320>Thomas William Rhys Davids and William Stede (2015), Pali-English Dictionary, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-8120811447, page 320</ref> This restriction on who could become a Buddhist monk is found in Vinaya Pitakam i.93, [[Digha Nikaya]], [[Majjhima Nikāya]], Tibetan ''Bhiksukarmavakya'' and ''Upasampadajnapti''.<ref name=davidsstedeped320/><ref>Gregory Schopen (2010), On Some Who Are Not Allowed to Become Buddhist Monks or Nuns: An Old List of Types of Slaves or Unfree Laborers, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Vol. 130, No. 2, pages 225-234</ref> − − ==Jaina texts== − − − ==Other uses== − ===Use of religious "devotees"=== − In [[Tamil language|Tamil]] tontai, dasa, servant, or slave, commonly used to refer to devotees of [[Vishnu]] or [[Krishna]].<ref name="isbn0-19-532639-3">{{cite book| author= Steven P. Hopkins| title=An ornament for jewels: love poems for the Lord of Gods|publisher=Oxford University Press| location=Oxford [Oxfordshire]|year=2007 |page=160|isbn=0-19-532639-3}}</ref> − − In [[Gaudiya Vaishnava]] theology [[Smriti]] statement ''{{IAST|dāsa-bhūto harer eva nānyasvaiva kadācana}}'', living entities (bhuto) are eternally in the service (dasa) of the Supreme Lord ([[Hari]]).<ref>[[Bhaktivedanta Swami]], A. C. (1972). ''The [[Bhagavad-gita As It Is]]'', second edition. [[New York]]: [[Macmillan Publishers|Macmillan]].</ref> Thus designation for [[Vaishnava]] followers of ''[[svayam bhagavan]]'' Krishna was the status title ''dasa'' as part of their names as in ''Hari Dasa''.<ref name="Cynt01">{{cite book − | author=Talbot, Cynthia |title=Precolonial India in practice: society, region, and identity in medieval Andhra |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] | year=2001 |page=81 |isbn=0-19-513661-6}}</ref> − − ===As a surname or byname=== − {{main|Das (surname)}} − Dasa or Das is also a surname found among Sikhs and Hindus, typically north, eastern and western India, where it literally means "votary, devotee, servant of God."<ref>D Roy (2013), Rural Politics in India: Political Stratification and Governance in West Bengal, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 1107042356, page 67</ref> For example, [[Mohandas Gandhi]]'s first name, Mohandas, means servant of Mohan or Krishna. Also, the name Surdas means servant of Sur or Deva. In the past, many sants of [[bhakti movement]] tradition added it in their names signifying their total devotion or surrender to God.<ref name="Cynt01"/> Line 118:
Line 91: − ==Comparative linguistics== − Dasa and related terms have been examined by several scholars.<ref>e.g., [[Asko Parpola]] (1988), Mayrhofer (1986-1996), Benveniste (1973), Lecoq (1990), Windfuhr (1999)</ref> While the terms ''Dasa'' and ''Dasyu'' have a negative meaning in Sanskrit, their Iranian counterparts ''Daha'' and ''Dahyu'' have preserved their positive (or neutral) meaning. This is similar to the Sanskrit terms ''[[deva (Hinduism)|Deva]]'' (a "positive" term) and ''[[Asura]]'' (a "negative" term). The Iranian counterparts of these terms (''[[Div (Persian mythology)|Daeva]]'' and ''[[Ahura]]'') have opposite meanings. − − [[Asko Parpola]] states the original ''Dasa'' is related to the Old Persian word ''Daha'' which also means "man", but refers specifically to a regional ethnic minority of Persia.<ref name=asko>Asko Parpola (2015), ''The Roots of Hinduism: The Early Aryans and the Indus Civilization'', Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0190226923, pages 100-106</ref> Parpola contrasts ''Daha'' with ''Arya'', stating that the latter also referred to "man" but specifically to the incoming [[Proto-Indo-Europeans|Indo-Iranians]] from Central Asia. The Vedic text that include prayers to help defeat the "Dasa as enemy people", states Parpola, may refer to the wars of the Indo-Iranians against the bearers of the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex]] (BMAC) culture. The latter spoke a different language and opposed Indo-Iranian religious practices.<ref name=asko/> Parpola uses archaeological and linguistic arguments to support his theory, but his theory is controversial.<ref name="jstor.org"/> − − [[Category:Demons in Hinduism]]
→Buddhist texts
'''''Dasa''''' is a [[Sanskrit]] word found in ancient Bharat's texts such as the ''[[Rigveda]]'' and ''[[Arthasastra]]''.<ref name=kangle/> It usually means "enemy" or "servant"<ref name=bw/> but ''dasa'', or ''das'', also means a "[[servant of God]]", "devotee," "[[votary]]" or "one who has surrendered to God". Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "servant" of a revered person or a particular deity.<ref name=schopen/>
{{NeedCitation}}
'''''Dasa''''' is a [[Sanskrit]] word found in ancient Bharat's texts such as the ''[[Rigveda]]'' and ''[[Arthasastra]]''.<ref name="kangle" /> It usually means "enemy" or "servant"<ref name="bw" /> but ''dasa'', or ''das'', also means a "[[servant of God]]", "devotee," "[[votary]]" or "one who has surrendered to God". Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "servant" of a revered person or a particular deity.<ref name="schopen">Gregory Schopen (2004), Buddhist Monks and Business Matters, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824827748, page 201</ref>
''Dasa'', in some contexts, is also related to ''dasyu'' and ''[[asura]]'', which have been translated by some scholars as "demon", "harmful supernatural forces", "slave", "servant" or "barbarian", depending on the context in which the word is used.<ref name=bw/><ref name=washhale>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 159-169</ref>
''Dasa'', in some contexts, is also related to ''dasyu'' and ''[[asura]]'', which have been translated by some scholars as "demon", "harmful supernatural forces", "slave", "servant" or "barbarian", depending on the context in which the word is used.<ref name=bw/><ref name=washhale>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 159-169</ref>
Kangle in 1960,<ref name=kangle>R.P. Kangle (1960), The Kautiliya Arthasastra - a critical edition, Vol. 2 and 3, University of Bombay Studies, ISBN 978-8120800427</ref> and others<ref>B. Breloer (1934), Kautiliya Studien, Bd. III, Leipzig, pages 10-16, 30-71</ref> suggest that, depending on the context, ''dasa'' may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit words ''dasa'' or ''dasyu'' suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In some contexts, the word ''dasa'' may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.<ref name=bw>Barbara West (2008), Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, ISBN 978-0816071098, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA182 page 182]</ref>
Kangle in 1960,<ref name=kangle>R.P. Kangle (1960), The Kautiliya Arthasastra - a critical edition, Vol. 2 and 3, University of Bombay Studies, ISBN 978-8120800427</ref> and others<ref>B. Breloer (1934), Kautiliya Studien, Bd. III, Leipzig, pages 10-16, 30-71</ref> suggest that, depending on the context, ''dasa'' may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit words ''dasa'' or ''dasyu'' suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In some contexts, the word ''dasa'' may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.<ref name=bw>Barbara West (2008), Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, ISBN 978-0816071098, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA182 page 182]</ref>
==Hindu Texts==
==Hindu Texts==
According to Arthashastra, it was illegal to force a ''dasa'' (slave) to do certain types of work, to hurt or abuse him, or to force sex on a female ''dasa''.<ref name=ss/>
According to Arthashastra, it was illegal to force a ''dasa'' (slave) to do certain types of work, to hurt or abuse him, or to force sex on a female ''dasa''.<ref name=ss/>
==Views of Sri Aurobindo==
==Views of Sri Aurobindo==
[[K.D. Sethna]] (1992) writes: "According to Aurobindo,(...) there are passages in which the spiritual interpretation of the Dasas, Dasyus and Panis is the sole one possible and all others are completely excluded. There are no passages in which we lack a choice either between this interpretation and a nature-poetry or between this interpretation and the reading of human enemies."
[[K.D. Sethna]] (1992) writes: "According to Aurobindo,(...) there are passages in which the spiritual interpretation of the Dasas, Dasyus and Panis is the sole one possible and all others are completely excluded. There are no passages in which we lack a choice either between this interpretation and a nature-poetry or between this interpretation and the reading of human enemies."
==References==
==References==
[[Category:Rigvedic tribes]]
[[Category:Rigvedic tribes]]