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'''''Dasa''''' is a [[Sanskrit]] word found in ancient Bharat's texts such as the ''[[Rigveda]]'' and ''[[Arthasastra]]''.<ref name="kangle" /> It usually means "enemy" or "servant"<ref name="bw" /> but ''dasa'', or ''das'', also means a "[[servant of God]]", "devotee," "[[votary]]" or "one who has surrendered to God". Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "servant" of a revered person or a particular deity.<ref name="schopen">Gregory Schopen (2004), Buddhist Monks and Business Matters, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0824827748, page 201</ref>

'''''Dasa''''' is a [[Sanskrit]] word found in ancient Bharat's texts such as the ''[[Rigveda]]'' and ''[[Arthasastra]]''.<ref name="kangle" /> It usually means "enemy" or "servant"<ref name="bw" /> but ''dasa'', or ''das'', also means a "[[servant of God]]", "devotee," "[[votary]]" or "one who has surrendered to God". Dasa may be a suffix of a given name to indicate a "servant" of a revered person or a particular deity.

''Dasa'', in some contexts, is also related to ''dasyu'' and ''[[asura]]'', which have been translated by some scholars as "demon", "harmful supernatural forces", "slave", "servant" or "barbarian", depending on the context in which the word is used.<ref name=bw/><ref name=washhale>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 159-169</ref>

''Dasa'', in some contexts, is also related to ''dasyu'' and ''[[asura]]'', which have been translated by some scholars as "demon", "harmful supernatural forces", "slave", "servant" or "barbarian", depending on the context in which the word is used.

==Etymology==

==Etymology==

[[Monier Monier-Williams]] in 1899, stated that the meaning of ''dasa'' varies contextually and means "mysterious forces", "savages", "barbarians" or "demons" in the earliest layer of Vedic literature – in other contexts, is a self-effacing way to refer oneself as "worshipper" or "devotee aiming to honor a deity", or a "servant of god".<ref name="monier">Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 475</ref> In later Bharat's literature, according to Monier-Williams, usage of ''dasa'' is used to refer to "a knowing man, or a knower of the universal spirit".<ref>Monier Monier-Williams, ''A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages'', Motilal Banarsidass, page 476</ref> In the altter sense, ''dāsa'' is masculine, while the feminine equivalent is ''dāsi''.<ref name="monier" /> Some early 20th Century translations, such as P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), translate ''dasa'' as "slave".<ref>P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 60, No. 3113 pages 841-846</ref>

 

 

[[Monier Monier-Williams]] in 1899, stated that the meaning of ''dasa'' varies contextually and means "mysterious forces", "savages", "barbarians" or "demons" in the earliest layer of Vedic literature – in other contexts, is a self-effacing way to refer oneself as "worshipper" or "devotee aiming to honor a deity", or a "servant of god".<ref name=monier>Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages, Motilal Banarsidass, page 475</ref> In later Bharat's literature, according to Monier-Williams, usage of ''dasa'' is used to refer to "a knowing man, or a knower of the universal spirit".<ref>Monier Monier-Williams, ''A Sanskrit-English Dictionary” Etymologically and Philologically Arranged to cognate Indo-European Languages'', Motilal Banarsidass, page 476</ref> In the altter sense, ''dāsa'' is masculine, while the feminine equivalent is ''dāsi''.<ref name=monier/> Some early 20th Century translations, such as P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), translate ''dasa'' as "slave".<ref>P. T. Srinivas Iyengar (1912), The Myth of the Aryan Invasion of India, Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, Vol. 60, No. 3113 pages 841-846</ref>

Kangle in 1960,<ref name=kangle>R.P. Kangle (1960), The Kautiliya Arthasastra - a critical edition, Vol. 2 and 3, University of Bombay Studies, ISBN 978-8120800427</ref> and others<ref>B. Breloer (1934), Kautiliya Studien, Bd. III, Leipzig, pages 10-16, 30-71</ref> suggest that, depending on the context, ''dasa'' may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit words ''dasa'' or ''dasyu'' suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In some contexts, the word ''dasa'' may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.<ref name=bw>Barbara West (2008), Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, ISBN 978-0816071098, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA182 page 182]</ref>

Kangle in 1960,<ref name=kangle>R.P. Kangle (1960), The Kautiliya Arthasastra - a critical edition, Vol. 2 and 3, University of Bombay Studies, ISBN 978-8120800427</ref> and others<ref>B. Breloer (1934), Kautiliya Studien, Bd. III, Leipzig, pages 10-16, 30-71</ref> suggest that, depending on the context, ''dasa'' may be translated as "enemy", "servant" or "religious devotee". More recent scholarly interpretations of the Sanskrit words ''dasa'' or ''dasyu'' suggest that these words used throughout the Vedas represents "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In some contexts, the word ''dasa'' may refer to enemies, in other contexts it may refer to those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs, and yet other contexts it may refer to mythical enemies in the battle between good and evil.<ref name=bw>Barbara West (2008), Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania, ISBN 978-0816071098, [https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=pCiNqFj3MQsC&pg=PA182 page 182]</ref>

===Rig Veda===

===Rig Veda===

''Dasa'' and related words such as ''Dasyu'' are found in the Rig Veda. They have been variously translated, depending on the context. These words represent in some context represent "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In other contexts, the word ''dasa'' refers to enemies and in other contexts, those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs.<ref name="bw"/><ref>[[R. C. Majumdar]] and A. D. Pusalker (editors): ''[[The History and Culture of the Bharat's People]]. Volume I, The Vedic age''. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.253. Keith and Macdonell 1922, ISBN 978-8172764401</ref>

''Dasa'' and related words such as ''Dasyu'' are found in the Rig Veda. They have been variously translated, depending on the context. These words represent in some context represent "disorder, chaos and dark side of human nature", and the verses that use the word ''dasa'' mostly contrast it with the concepts of "order, purity, goodness and light."<ref name=bw/> In other contexts, the word ''dasa'' refers to enemies and in other contexts, those who had not adopted the Vedic beliefs.<ref>[[R. C. Majumdar]] and A. D. Pusalker (editors): ''[[The History and Culture of the Bharat's People]]. Volume I, The Vedic age''. Bombay : Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan 1951, p.253. Keith and Macdonell 1922, ISBN 978-8172764401</ref>

 

====Dasa with the meaning of savage, barbarians====

====Dasa with the meaning of savage, barbarians====

Rig Veda 10.22.8 describes Dasyus as "savages" who have no laws, different observances, a-karman (who do not perform rites) and who act against a person without knowing the person.<ref name=washhale/>

Rig Veda 10.22.8 describes Dasyus as "savages" who have no laws, different observances, a-karman (who do not perform rites) and who act against a person without knowing the person.

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====Dasa with the meaning of demon====

====Dasa with the meaning of demon====

Within the Vedic texts, ''Dasa'' is the word used to describe supernatural demonic creatures with many eyes and many heads. This has led scholars to interpret that the word ''Dasa'' in Vedic times meant evil, supernatural, destructive forces. For example, Rigveda in hymn 10.99.6 states,<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 163</ref>

Within the Vedic texts, ''Dasa'' is the word used to describe supernatural demonic creatures with many eyes and many heads. This has led scholars to interpret that the word ''Dasa'' in Vedic times meant evil, supernatural, destructive forces. For example, Rigveda in hymn 10.99.6 states,

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====Dasa with the meaning of servant or slave====

====Dasa with the meaning of servant or slave====

Dasa is also used in Vedic literature, in some contexts, to refer to "servants", a few translate this as "slaves", but the verses do not describe how the Vedic society treats or mistreats the servants. [[Ram Sharan Sharma|R. S. Sharma]], in his 1958 book, states that the only word which could possibly mean slave in [[Rigveda]] is ''dāsa'', and this sense of use is traceable to four verses out of 10,600 verses in Rigveda, namely 1.92.8, 1.158.5, 10.62.10 and 8.56.3.<ref name=sharmasai24>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=R. S. |title=Sudras in Ancient India |publisher=Motilal Banarasidass |year=1990 |origyear=first published in 1958 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC|pages=24-25, 50-51}}</ref> The translation of word ''dasa'' to servant or slave varies by scholars.<ref name=bw/> HH Wilson, for example, translates ''Dasa'' in Rigvedic instances identified by Sharma, as servant rather than slave,<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/166/mode/2up Rigveda 10.62.10] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, page 167</ref> as in verse 10.62.10:<ref name="Wash Edward Hale 1999 page 162">Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, page 162</ref>

Dasa is also used in Vedic literature, in some contexts, to refer to "servants", a few translate this as "slaves", but the verses do not describe how the Vedic society treats or mistreats the servants. [[Ram Sharan Sharma|R. S. Sharma]], in his 1958 book, states that the only word which could possibly mean slave in [[Rigveda]] is ''dāsa'', and this sense of use is traceable to four verses out of 10,600 verses in Rigveda, namely 1.92.8, 1.158.5, 10.62.10 and 8.56.3. The translation of word ''dasa'' to servant or slave varies by scholars. HH Wilson, for example, translates ''Dasa'' in Rigvedic instances identified by Sharma, as servant rather than slave, as in verse 10.62.10:

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|Rigveda 10.62.10| Translated by HH Wilson<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/166/mode/2up Rigveda 10.62.10] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, page 167</ref>}}

|Rigveda 10.62.10| Translated by HH Wilson<ref>[https://archive.org/stream/rigvedasanhitc06wils#page/166/mode/2up Rigveda 10.62.10] HH Wilson (Translator), Trubner & Co, page 167</ref>}}

R. S. Sharma translates ''dasi'' in a Vedic era Upanishad as "maid-servant".<ref name=sharmasai50/>

R. S. Sharma translates ''dasi'' in a Vedic era Upanishad as "maid-servant".

===Later Vedic texts===

===Later Vedic texts===

The three words Dasa, Dasyu and [[Asura]] are used interchangeably in almost identical verses that are repeated in different Vedic texts, such as the Rig veda, the Saunaka recension of [[Atharvaveda|Atharva veda]], the Paippalada [[Samhita]] of the Atharva veda and the [[Brahmana]]s text in various Vedas. Such comparative study has led scholars to interpret ''Dasa'' and ''Dasyu'' may have been a synonym of ''Asura'' (demons or evil forces, sometimes simply lords with special knowledge and magical powers) of later Vedic texts.<ref>Wash Edward Hale (1999), Ásura- in Early Vedic Religion, Motilal Barnarsidass, ISBN 978-8120800618, pages 157-174</ref>{{request quotation|date=February 2016}}

The three words Dasa, Dasyu and [[Asura]] are used interchangeably in almost identical verses that are repeated in different Vedic texts, such as the Rig veda, the Saunaka recension of [[Atharvaveda|Atharva veda]], the Paippalada [[Samhita]] of the Atharva veda and the [[Brahmana]]s text in various Vedas. Such comparative study has led scholars to interpret ''Dasa'' and ''Dasyu'' may have been a synonym of ''Asura'' (demons or evil forces, sometimes simply lords with special knowledge and magical powers) of later Vedic texts. {{request quotation|date=February 2016}}

Sharma states that the word ''dasa'' occurs in Aitareya and Gopatha [[Brahmanas]], but not in the sense of a slave.<ref name=sharmasai50>{{cite book |last=Sharma |first=R. S. |title=Sudras in Ancient India |publisher=Motilal Banarasidass |year=1990 | origyear=first published in 1958 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsZkAu-RHVgC|pages=50-51}}</ref>

Sharma states that the word ''dasa'' occurs in Aitareya and Gopatha [[Brahmanas]], but not in the sense of a slave.

===Arthasastra===

===Arthasastra===

[[Kautilya]]'s [[Arthasastra]] dedicates the thirteenth chapter on ''dasas'', in his third book on law. This Sanskrit document from the [[Maurya Empire]] period (4th century BCE), has been translated by several authors. Shamasastry's translation in 1915,<ref name=ss/> Kangle's translation in 1960s<ref name=Kangle2>{{citation |last1=Kangle |first1=R. P. |title=The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra (Part II) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=ag89KaFH8SsC&pg=PA237 |year=1986 |origyear=first published 1969 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |edition=Second |isbn=978-81-208-0042-7 |pages=237–}}</ref> and Rangarajan's translation in 1987<ref name=Rangarajan>{{citation |last=Rangarajan |first=L. N. |title=Kautilya — The ARTHASHASTRA |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3jbzZkoR36QC |year=1992 |origyear=first published in 1987 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-81-8475-011-9 |at=Chapter VIII.x}}</ref> all map ''dasa'' as slave. However, Kangle suggests that the context and rights granted to ''dasa'' by [[Kautilya]], such as the right to the same wage as a free labourer and the right to freedom on payment of an amount, distinguish this form of slavery from that of contemporary Greece.<ref name=rpk>{{citation |last1=Kangle |first1=R. P. |title=The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra (Part III) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dzxwTS0-nbUC&pg=PA186 |year=1997 |origyear=first published 1960 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0041-0 |p=186}}</ref> [[Edmund Leach]] points out that the Dasa was the antithesis of the concept of ''Arya''. As the latter term evolved through successive meanings, so did Dasa: from "indigenous inhabitant" to "serf," "tied servant," and finally "chattel slave." He suggests the term "unfreedom" to cover all these meanings.<ref name="Leach review">{{citation |first=Edmund |last=Leach |title=Slavery in Ancient India by Dev Raj Chanana (Book review) |journal=Science & Society |volume=26 |number=3 |year=1962 |pp=335-338 |JSTOR=40400852}}</ref>

[[Kautilya]]'s [[Arthasastra]] dedicates the thirteenth chapter on ''dasas'', in his third book on law. This Sanskrit document from the [[Maurya Empire]] period (4th century BCE), has been translated by several authors. Shamasastry's translation in 1915, Kangle's translation in 1960s and Rangarajan's translation in 1987<ref name=Rangarajan>{{citation |last=Rangarajan |first=L. N. |title=Kautilya — The ARTHASHASTRA |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=3jbzZkoR36QC |year=1992 |origyear=first published in 1987 |publisher=Penguin Books Limited |isbn=978-81-8475-011-9 |at=Chapter VIII.x}}</ref> all map ''dasa'' as slave. However, Kangle suggests that the context and rights granted to ''dasa'' by [[Kautilya]], such as the right to the same wage as a free labourer and the right to freedom on payment of an amount, distinguish this form of slavery from that of contemporary Greece.<ref name=rpk>{{citation |last1=Kangle |first1=R. P. |title=The Kauṭilīya Arthaśāstra (Part III) |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=dzxwTS0-nbUC&pg=PA186 |year=1997 |origyear=first published 1960 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publ. |isbn=978-81-208-0041-0 |p=186}}</ref>  

According to Arthasastra, anyone who had been found guilty of ''nishpatitah'' (Sanskrit: निष्पातित, ruined, bankrupt, a minor crime)<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=niSpAtita&script=&direction=SE&link=yes निष्पातित] Sanskrit English dictionary</ref> may mortgage oneself to become ''dasa'' for someone willing to pay his or her bail and employ the ''dasa'' for money and privileges.<ref name=rpk/><ref name=ss/>

According to Arthasastra, anyone who had been found guilty of ''nishpatitah'' (Sanskrit: निष्पातित, ruined, bankrupt, a minor crime)<ref>[http://spokensanskrit.de/index.php?tinput=niSpAtita&script=&direction=SE&link=yes निष्पातित] Sanskrit English dictionary</ref> may mortgage oneself to become ''dasa'' for someone willing to pay his or her bail and employ the ''dasa'' for money and privileges.<ref name=rpk/><ref name=ss/>