Plant Taxonomy
Plant taxonomy – Ancient & Modern
Though a single work devoted to botany is unknown, the knowledge of botany among Indians is well known from Vedas, works on Ayurveda, Krishishastra, Arthashastra and lexicons. Terms like Vrkshayurveda and Vanaspatividya tell us that knowledge of botany flourished in the past. There are few legends which indicate that ancient Indians had several beliefs associated with trees. For instance, Gobhilagrihyasutra mentions that Asvatta brings danger of fire to one’s residence and that Udumbara leads to a series of optical diseases. Also, Brihatsamhita speaks of trees like the Asoka and Punnaga which are beneficial to warfare.
1. LITERATURE REVIEW
a. Nomenclature
The branch of taxonomy includes nomenclaure and suitable grouping of the plants.In general, plants were named with a scientific approach. A look at the etymology of the synonymns of trees tells us that naming was backed by reason.
v&] v&ZCyte iD*te - that which is cut
mhIéh – that which grows on Earth
zaoI - that which has branches
padp – that which drinks sap with roots
té - triNt Anen Aatpm! !– that by which people overcome heat
Anaekh - Ans> zkqSyak< git< hiNt– that which obstructs pace of cart
plazI – that which has leaves
Agm n gCDtIit– that which doesn’t move
Similar scientific basis was adopted in naming the different varieties of plants based on various factors as provided in the following table.
Table 1: Nomenclature of plants
| Sl.No. | Parameter | Plant – Name | Reason for the Name |
| 1 | Special features | · Ny¢aexm!
· àsri[ · v&]aéh |
Banyan tree is huge and blocks the road
spreads on the ground- Ipomea tridentala Vandaka grows on trees - Vanda roxburghi |
| 2 | Morphological characters | · v³pu:p
· b÷padm! · vLkÔ‚m · icÇbIj / gNxvRhSt / pÂa¼‚l · Sv[R]Iir |
Has curved flowers - Sesbania grandiflora
Has several roots - Banyan tree The bark has medicinal value and it is corky, paper-like! - Betula utilis Has seeds with various marks and has palmate leaves(five-fingered!) - Castor oil plant (Ricinis communis) Latex of roots of Kashmiri Hirtiz is golden yellow in colour - Euphoria thomsoniana |
| 3 | Comparison with familiar objects | · Aaouki[R
· hilin · zŒpui:p |
The leaves resemble ears of rat
Rhizomes resemble pestle Flowers of Apraijta resemble conch |
| 4 | Place or origin, habit, flowering season | · Ôivif
· yvn · jlj /p»ja · sda)l |
Is a South Indian crop - Cardamon
Seeds grow in - Hyoscyamus Grows in water - Lotus Bears fruits in all seasons – Beal |
| 5 | Innate Properties | · AjgNx
· AñgNx · %î · sIt · puÇda |
Has smell like odour of goat - Gynandropis gynandra
Has smeel like odour of horse - Winter cherry Is hot in potency - Black pepper Is cool in potency - White sandalwood Cures sterility and bestows one with son - Ipomea sepiaria |
| 6 | Pharmacological actions | · k«im¹
· pa;anÉed · kzmdR |
It is a good anti-helmenthic
It dissolves kidney-stones Relieves cough – Cassia occidentalis |
| 7 | Utility | · SyNdn
· xnuÔ‚Rm · Ai¶mNw · ì[air |
The wood is used to make chariots - Lagerstroemia parviflora
It is used for making bows - Bamboo Wood of is used for kindling sacrificial fire - Premna integrifolia cures boils (enemy of boils) |
| 8 | Mythology | · baeixÔ‚m
· #NÔv&] / surdaé / devdaé · k«:[tulis / surs |
Buddha attained enlightenment under the peepul tree
The sacred fig (Peepal) Pinus deodara is Indra’s tree It is used in the worship of Lord Krishna |
b. Classification - plants were categorised based on the criteria of botanical terms, properties and food value.
1. Botanical terms :
Ø §Gved (X.97.3,15)
A;xI> àitmaedXv< pu:pvtI> àsUvrI>,Aña #v sijvrIvIRéx> pariy:[v>.
ya> )ilnIyaR A)la Apu:pa yaí pui:p[I>,b&hSpitàsUtaSta na muÂNTv<hs>.
divides plants as –)ilnI ,A)la ,Apu:p and pui:pnI
divides trees (Aae;ix is a vedic term for a class of trees) as- guLm , Ée;j and lta
Ø AwvRved (VIII.7.4,1,12)
àSt&[tI StiMbnIrekzu¼a> àtNvtIrae;xIra vdaim, A<zumtI> kai{fnIyaR ivzaoa þyaim te vIédae vEñdevIé¢a> puê;jIvnI.
ya bævae yaí zu³a raeih[Iét p&îy>,
Ais²I> k«:[a Aae;xI> svaR ACDavdamis.
mxumNmUl< mxumd¢masa< mxumNmXy< vIéxa< bÉUv,
mxumt! p[¡ mxumt! mxae> s<É´a Am&tSy É]ae "&tmÚ< Êÿta< gaepu<raegvm!.
divides plants as àSt&[it , StiMbin> , @ks&¼ae> , tnuvit>, A<zumit>, ki{fin> and ivzaoa>
divides plants on the basis of colour as - zu³a , raeih[Iét , p&îy> , Ais²I> and k«:[a
divides plants based on sweetness as - mxumNmUl< , mxumd¢m! , mxumNmXy< , mxumt! p[¡ and mxumt! pu:pm!
Ø pai[in (VIII.4.6 , IV.3.133.VIII.4.4 , VIII.4.5)
vÉa;aE;ixvnSpit_y> , Avyve c àa{yaE;ixv&]e_y> ,
vn< purgaimïkaisºkasairkakaeqra¢e_y> , àinrNt>zre]uPl]aèka:yRoidrpIyU]a_yae=s<}ayamip,
groups as- Aae;ix vn (producing herbs) and vnSpit vn producing timber)
Ø mnu (I.46-48)
Aae;ix , vnSpit , v&] ,guLm ,t&[, àtan and v‘I
%iѾa> Swavra> sveR bIjka{fàraeih[>,Aae;Xy> )lpakaNta b÷pu:Ppklaepga>.
Apu:pa> )lvNtae ye te vnSpty> Sm&ta>,pui:p[> )ilníEv v&]aStUÉyt> Sm&ta>.
guCDguLm< tu ivivx< twEv t&[jaty>,bIjka{fêha{yev àtana v‘y @v c.
Ø suïut (sutrasthana .1.29) & crk (sutrasthana .1.71,72)
tasa< SwavraítuivRxa> - vnSptyae , v&]a , vIéx , Aae;xy #it, tasu Apu:pa> )lvNtae, vnSpty> pu:p)lvNtae v&]a> , àtanvTy> StiMbNyí vIéx> , )lpakinóa Aae;xy #it.
vnSpStwa vIéÖanSpTyStwaE;ix>. )lE> vnSpit> pu:pE> vanSpTy> )lErip, Aae;Xy> )lpakaNta> àtavE> vIéx> Sm&ta>.
vnSpit ,vanSpTy (trees bearing flowers followed by fruits) ,Aae;ix , vIéx! (same as gulma & lata )
Ø Éagvt pura[(III.10.19)
vnpTyae;ixltaTvKsara vIéxae Ô‚ma>, %TöaetsStm> àaya ANt> SpzaR ivzei;[>.
groups plants as- vnSpit , Ô‚m , Aae;ix , lta (is the same as valli of manu) , TvKsar and
vIéx! (shrubs that are like clumps)
Ø mTSypura[ (8.2,3 ; 153.304)
ydaiÉi;´> sklaixraJye p&wuxRirÈyamixpae bÉUv,tdaE;xInamixp< ckar y|ìtana< tpsa cNÔm!.
n]ÇtariÖjv&]guLmltaivtanSy c éKmgÉR>,ApamxIz< vé[< xnana< ra}a< àÉu< vEïv[ tÖt!.
jljSwljE> pu:pE> àaeT)…L‘E> %pxaeiÉtm!,icÇkNdrs<Swan< guhag&hmnaehrm!.
classifies plants as: v&] , guLm , lta , vIéx , v‘I
divides Aae;ix (trees) as: k«ò and SvyMjat
divides flowers as: jlj and Swlj
Ø %pvnivnaed (verse 43)
vnSpitÔ‚mltaguLma> pdjaty>, bIjaTka{faÄwa kNdaľNm iÇivx< ivÊ>.
groups plants as- vnSpit , Ô‚m , lta and guLm
2. Properties
Caraka in his Sutrasthana classifies plants as Purgatives and Astringents.The former has about 600 species whereas the latter has about 500 species. Sushruta classifies plants into 37 gana-s on similar basis.
3. Food value:
Caraka classifies plants into 6 varieties as (Sutrasthana, IV):
ü xaNyvgR Graminaceae (corns with husk)divided into 11 varieties like zail, ìIih yv & gaexUm
ü zamIxaNyvgR Leguminosae (12 types of corns) Eg. muÌ ma;a
ü zaoavgR (18 types of vegetables)
ü )lvgR
ü hirÖgR (includes Zingiber officinale, Raphanus saticus,Allium cepa & Allium
sativum )
ü AaharyaigvgR oils of sesamum and mustard
Susruta classified plants into 15 types based on food-value as (Sutrasthana, XXVIII):
zailxaNy, ;iòk, ìIihxaNy, k…xaNyvgR , vEdl , tl,yv ,izMb, )lvgR ,zakavgR
pu:pvgR ,%iÑÖgR , ka{fvgR , tElvgR , #]uvgR
Science of the modern times defines Taxonomy as the branch of science that deals with the description, naming and classification of organisms. The term is derived from the ancient Greek words taxis (arrangement) and nomia (method). Taxonomist aims to group together living forms which have common associates. This science is hierarchical. à various Divisions à Classes à Orders à Families à Genera àSpecies.Thus, species is the basic unit of classification. There were various systems of classifications proposed by the westerners based on :
1. Habits
2. Artificial Systems based on numerical classifications
3. Systems based on form relationships
4. Systems based on Phylogeny
The first system of classification which is based on habits was put forth by the Greeks and was in vogue for about 10 centuries. The prominent contributors in this field are:
Table 2: Habits
| Sl.
No. |
Scientist | Distinguishing
Characters |
Types | Feature |
| 1 | Theophrastus
(Father of botany) (370-285 B.C) - Greek |
Form or
Texture |
Trees,
Shrubs, Undershrubs & Herbs |
Distinguished between centripetal & centrifugal inflorescences, recognised differences in ovary position, and in polypetalous and gamopetalous corollas |
| 2 | Andrea Cesalpino
(1519-1631) - Italian |
· ovary position; Number of locules in ovary bulbs;
· nature of sap; |
Herbs & Trees | Influenced later botanists like Linnaeus |
| 3 | John Ray (1628-1705) - English | Form & gross morphology | Woody & herbaceous plants | Accounted for nearly 18000 species; recognised monocots & dicots; classes based on fruit-type (cone-bearing, nut-bearing. etc.,); superior to even Linnaean system |
Table 3: Artificial Systems based on numerical classifications
| Sl.
No. |
Scientist | Characters | Types | Feature |
| 1 | Carolus Linnaeus
(1707-1778) Father of taxonomic Botany & Zoology |
Artificial System – length, union & number of stamens | Plants were put into 24 classes; sub-divided into orders based on number of styles in each flower | Identification& naming of unknown plants was possible – a path breaking feature! |
Table 4: Systems based on form relationships
| Sl.
No. |
Scientist | Characters | Types | Feature |
| 1 | De Jussieu
(17th cen. AD) |
Monocot vs. Dicots
Ovary position ; nature of petals ; distinctness of petals |
Flowering plants were put into 15 classes ; 100 orders | Natural system; each plant cleary differentialed , named, described |
| 2 | De Candolle
(18th cen AD) |
Nature of corolla, gamopetalous vs. Polypetalous corollas; ovary positions | Put plants into 161 families | |
| 3 | Bentham & Hooker(1800-1884)- English | Nature of corolla & seeds, ovary position | Classifies plants into 200 orders , 7569 orders | Describes taxa of all levels |
Table 5: Systems based on Phylogeny
| Sl.
No. |
Scientist | Characters | Types | Feature |
| 1 | Eichler(1839-1887) | Seeds | Cryptogamae – ferns, bryophytes, hepatics, fungi and algae& Phanerogamae- seed plants (thallophytes, bryophytes & pteridophytes) | Seed-plants were for the first time put into two major taxa – angiospermae & gynnospermae |
| 2 | Adolph Engler
(1844-1930) |
Monocots, dicots | Angiospermae and gymnospermae ; the angiospermae were divided into monocots and dicots ; and dicots further sub-divided | Provides means of identification of all of the known genera of plants from algae to advanced seed plants |
ANALYSIS & SYNTHESIS
The Indian system of classification adopted right from the vedic times to the times of the puranas and other lexicons provide classification based on habits, dietetic value and also on botanical terms. In the modern science systems, the classification is based on habits, natural and artificial methods. The hierarchial system of classification adopted by the modern scientists and the binomial nomenclature adopted by the westerners is absent in our traditional Indian system. The divisions of plants based on properties and food-value tell us that the focus of the Indians had been mainly on finding the usefulness of each & every plant and putting them under a broad category. In addition to that, since the naming of plants was done by notable morphological features, it appealed even to the common-man.
2. CONCLUSION
The paper is an attempt in presenting a relative picture of the traditional and modern systems of plant-classification. Based on the findings, it is concluded that in both Indian and Modern systems, there is lot of science involved when it comes to identifying or naming plants. The plants were classed depending on the knowledge existing at that time about the variety or nature of plants. The Indians had minor variations with respect to definitions of few classes of plant-varieties.The Westerners were fairly uniform on the definitions of various botanical terminologies.
3. SCOPE OF FUTURE RESEARCH
There is ample scope in taking this forward by exclusively basing the comparison on one extensive and comprehensive system of the modern scientists with that of a smiliar ancient system. Moreover, the scope extends in the area of comparing commonly available and useful plants’ nomenclature in both the systems.This would throw light on areas of overlapping between the two different systems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY:
1. Caraka Samhita, ed. with Eng tr. by Ram Karan Sharma and Vaidya Bhagwan Das, The Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Vol. XCIV, 1976.
2. Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana, C.L.Goswami, Gita press, , 1971.
3. Matsya Puranam, Gurumandal series no. XIII, , 1954.
4. Susruta Samhita, ed. & Tr. by Priya Vrat Sharma, Chawkhambha Visvabharati Oriental Publishers & Distributors, 1999.
5. Vrkshayurveda – An Introduction to Indian Plant Science, K.Vijayalakshmi and K.M.Shyam Sundar, 1993
6. Flora and Fauna in Sanskrit Literature, Dr. S. C. Banerji, Naya prakash, , 1980.
7. Horticulture in Ancient , R.N.Sampath, Rashtriya Samskrita Sansthan, , 1998.
8. Modern Textbook of Botany, Y.D.Tiagi, Universal Publications, ,1983.