Plant Taxonomy

Plant taxonomy is a systematic study that deals with the identification, characterization, nomenclature, and arrangement of plants into certain categories in a hierarchical manner on the basis of similarities and dissimilarities that exist between them.

According to Britannica classification of living beings is based on a number of factors such animate or inanimate, mobile or immobile, single-cell or multi-celled organisms, living on land or in water etc. In modern classification, living organisms are classified into five kingdoms namely, Monera (such as Bacteria), Protista (such as Algae, Protozoans), Fungi (Fungi), Plantae (Plants, Mosses, Ferns, Flowering plants) and Animalia (including animals of many kinds). The branch of biology that deals with the study of plants including their structure, properties and biochemical processes is called Botany in modern times.

However, ancient Indian seers intimately involved with nature and the division of life-sciences, specifically with regard to plants, was related mostly to agriculture for the production of food grains, forests and environmental conservation for protecting soil, water and air and Ayurveda for health.

Introduction

In the ancient Indian texts, the nomenclature of the plants was generally based on the plant characteristics, their botanical character and therapeutic properties. In Rajanighantu, much importance has been given for nomenclature of plants for which seven factors have been described. In Europe botanical nomenclature has a long history from Theophrastus (c. 370-287 BC), Dioscorides (c. 40-90 AD) to Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD).

The branch of taxonomy includes nomenclature and suitable grouping of the plants based on some features. In general, plants were named with a scientific approach. Since Vedic times ancient people had reverence and close relationship with the plant kingdom. The usefulness of various plants has been enumerated in Atharvaveda, Puranas, Itihasas and texts like Charaka Samhita, and Sushruta Samhita. People had knowledge of processing of almost every part of the plant namely, roots, barks, leaves, flowers, fruits and seeds.

Nomenclature of plants

Sl.No.	Parameter	Plant – Name	Reason for the Name
1	Special features	न्यग्रोधम् प्रसरणि वृक्षारुह	Banyan tree is huge and blocks the road spreads on the ground- Ipomea tridentala Vandaka grows on trees -  Vanda roxburghi
2	Morphological characters	वक्रपुष्प वल्कद्रुम चित्रबीज / गन्धर्वहस्त  पञ्चाङ्गुल स्वर्णक्षीर	Has curved flowers - Sesbania grandiflora Has several roots - Banyan tree The bark has medicinal value and it is corky, paper-like! - Betula utilis Has seeds with various marks and has palmate leaves(five-fingered!) - Castor oil plant (Ricinis communis) Latex of roots of Kashmiri Hirtiz  is    golden yellow in colour - Euphoria thomsoniana
3	Comparison with familiar objects	आखुकर्णि हलिनि शङ्खपुष्प	The leaves resemble ears of rat Rhizomes resemble pestle Flowers of Apraijta resemble conch
4	Place or origin, habit, flowering season	द्रविडि यवन जलज पङ्कज सदाफल	Is a South Indian crop - Cardamon Seeds grow in - Hyoscyamus Grows in water - Lotus Bears fruits in all seasons – Beal
5	Innate Properties	अजगन्ध अश्वगन्ध उश्न सीत पुत्रदा	Has smell like odour of goat - Gynandropis gynandra Has smeel like odour of horse - Winter cherry Is hot in potency - Black pepper Is cool in potency - White sandalwood Cures sterility and bestows one with son - Ipomea sepiaria
6	Pharmacological actions	कृमिघ्न पाषानभेद कशमर्द	It is a good anti-helmenthic It dissolves kidney-stones Relieves cough – Cassia occidentalis
7	Utility	स्यन्दन धनुर्द्रुम अग्निमन्थ व्रणारि	The wood is used to make chariots - Lagerstroemia parviflora It is used for making bows - Bamboo Wood of is used for kindling sacrificial fire  - Premna integrifolia cures boils (enemy of boils)
8	Mythology	बोधिद्रुम इन्द्रवृक्ष / सुरदारु / देवदारु कृष्णतुलसि सुरस	Buddha attained enlightenment under the peepul tree The sacred fig (Peepal) Pinus deodara is Indra’s tree It is used in the worship of Lord Krishna

Classification - plants were categorised based on the criteria of  botanical terms, properties and food value.

Botanical terms :

ऋग्वेद​ (10.97.3,15)

ओषधीः प्रतिमोदध्वं पुष्पवतीः प्रसूवरीः । अश्वा इव सजिवरीर्वीरुधः पारयिष्णवः॥

याः फलिनीर्या अफला अपुष्पा याश्च पुष्पिणीः । बृहस्पतिप्रसूतास्ता ना मुञ्चन्त्वंहसः ॥

divides plants as फलिनी अफला अपुष्प पुष्पिनी

(ओषधि is a vedic term for a class of trees)

divides trees as ओषधि गुल्म भेषज लता

(8.7.4,1,12)

àSt&[tI StiMbnIrekzu¼a> àtNvtIrae;xIra vdaim, A<zumtI> kai{fnIyaR ivzaoa þyaim te vIédae vEñdevIé¢a> puê;jIvnI.

ya bævae yaí zu³a raeih[Iét p&îy>,

Ais²I> k«:[a Aae;xI> svaR ACDavdamis.

mxumNmUl< mxumd¢masa< mxumNmXy< vIéxa< bÉUv,

mxumt! p[¡ mxumt! mxae> s<É´a Am&tSy É]ae "&tmÚ< Êÿta< gaepu<raegvm!.

divides plants as àSt&[it , StiMbin> , @ks&¼ae> , tnuvit>, A<zumit>, ki{fin> and ivzaoa>

divides plants on the basis of colour as - zu³a ,  raeih[Iét , p&îy> , Ais²I> and k«:[a

divides plants based on sweetness as - mxumNmUl< , mxumd¢m!  , mxumNmXy< , mxumt! p[¡ and mxumt! pu:pm!

Ø  pai[in (VIII.4.6 , IV.3.133.VIII.4.4 , VIII.4.5)

vÉa;aE;ixvnSpit_y> , Avyve c àa{yaE;ixv&]e_y> ,

vn< purgaimïkaisºkasairkakaeqra¢e_y> , àinrNt>zre]uPl]aèka:yRoidrpIyU]a_yae=s<}ayamip,

groups as- Aae;ix vn (producing herbs) and vnSpit vn producing timber)  

Ø  mnu (I.46-48)

Aae;ix , vnSpit , v&] ,guLm ,t&[, àtan and v‘I

%iѾa> Swavra> sveR bIjka{fàraeih[>,Aae;Xy> )lpakaNta b÷pu:Ppklaepga>.

Apu:pa> )lvNtae ye te vnSpty> Sm&ta>,pui:p[> )ilníEv v&]aStUÉyt> Sm&ta>.

guCDguLm< tu ivivx< twEv t&[jaty>,bIjka{fêha{yev àtana v‘y @v c.

Ø  suïut (sutrasthana .1.29) & crk (sutrasthana .1.71,72)

tasa< SwavraítuivRxa> - vnSptyae , v&]a , vIéx , Aae;xy #it, tasu Apu:pa> )lvNtae, vnSpty> pu:p)lvNtae v&]a> , àtanvTy> StiMbNyí vIéx> , )lpakinóa Aae;xy #it.

vnSpStwa vIéÖanSpTyStwaE;ix>. )lE> vnSpit> pu:pE> vanSpTy> )lErip, Aae;Xy> )lpakaNta> àtavE> vIéx> Sm&ta>.

vnSpit ,vanSpTy (trees bearing flowers followed by fruits) ,Aae;ix , vIéx! (same as  gulma & lata )

Ø  Éagvt pura[(III.10.19)

vnpTyae;ixltaTvKsara vIéxae Ô‚ma>, %TöaetsStm> àaya ANt> SpzaR ivzei;[>.

groups plants as- vnSpit , Ô‚m , Aae;ix , lta (is the same as   valli of manu) , TvKsar and

vIéx! (shrubs that are like clumps)

Ø  mTSypura[ (8.2,3 ; 153.304)

ydaiÉi;´> sklaixraJye p&wuxRirÈyamixpae bÉUv,tdaE;xInamixp< ckar y|ìtana< tpsa cNÔm!.

n]ÇtariÖjv&]guLmltaivtanSy c éKmgÉR>,ApamxIz< vé[< xnana< ra}a< àÉu< vEïv[ tÖt!.

jljSwljE> pu:pE> àaeT)…L‘E> %pxaeiÉtm!,icÇkNdrs<Swan< guhag&hmnaehrm!.

classifies plants as: v&] , guLm , lta , vIéx , v‘I

divides Aae;ix (trees) as: k«ò and SvyMjat

divides flowers as: jlj and Swlj

Ø  %pvnivnaed (verse 43)

vnSpitÔ‚mltaguLma> pdjaty>, bIjaTka{faÄwa kNdaľNm iÇivx< ivÊ>.

groups plants as- vnSpit , Ô‚m , lta and  guLm

Properties

Caraka in his Sutrasthana classifies plants as Purgatives and Astringents.The former has about 600 species whereas the latter has about 500 species. Sushruta classifies plants into 37 gana-s on similar basis.

Food value:

Caraka classifies plants into 6 varieties as (Sutrasthana, IV):

ü  xaNyvgR Graminaceae (corns with husk)divided into 11 varieties like zail, ìIih  yv &  gaexUm

ü  zamIxaNyvgR Leguminosae (12 types of corns) Eg. muÌ ma;a

ü  zaoavgR  (18 types of vegetables)

ü  )lvgR

ü  hirÖgR (includes Zingiber officinale, Raphanus saticus,Allium cepa & Allium

sativum )

ü  AaharyaigvgR oils of sesamum and mustard

Susruta classified plants into 15 types based on food-value as (Sutrasthana, XXVIII):

zailxaNy, ;iòk, ìIihxaNy, k…xaNyvgR , vEdl , tl,yv ,izMb, )lvgR ,zakavgR

pu:pvgR ,%iÑÖgR , ka{fvgR , tElvgR , #]uvgR

Modern Taxonomy

Science of the modern times defines Taxonomy as the branch of science that deals with the description, naming and classification of organisms. The term is derived from the ancient Greek words taxis (arrangement) and nomia (method). Taxonomist aims to group together living forms which have common associates. This science is hierarchical. à various Divisions à Classes à Orders à Families à Genera àSpecies. Thus, species is the basic unit of classification. There were various systems of classifications proposed by the westerners based on :

1.      Habits

2.      Artificial Systems based on numerical classifications

3.      Systems based on form relationships

4.      Systems based on Phylogeny

The first system of classification which is based on habits was put forth by the Greeks and was in vogue for about 10 centuries. The prominent contributors in this field are:

Habits

Sl. No.	Scientist	Distinguishing Characters	Types	Feature
1	Theophrastus (Father of botany) (370-285 B.C) - Greek	Form or Texture	Trees, Shrubs, Undershrubs & Herbs	Distinguished between centripetal & centrifugal inflorescences, recognised differences in ovary position, and in polypetalous and gamopetalous corollas
2	Andrea Cesalpino (1519-1631) - Italian	·         ovary position; Number of locules in ovary bulbs; ·         nature of sap;	Herbs & Trees	Influenced later botanists like Linnaeus
3	John Ray (1628-1705) - English	Form & gross morphology	Woody & herbaceous plants	Accounted for nearly 18000 species; recognised monocots & dicots; classes based on fruit-type (cone-bearing, nut-bearing. etc.,); superior to even Linnaean system

Artificial Systems based on numerical classifications

Sl. No.	Scientist	Characters	Types	Feature
1	Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778) Father of taxonomic Botany & Zoology	Artificial System – length, union & number of stamens	Plants were put into 24 classes; sub-divided into orders based on number of styles in each flower	Identification& naming of unknown plants was possible – a path breaking feature!

Systems based on form relationships

Sl. No.	Scientist	Characters	Types	Feature
1	De Jussieu (17th cen. AD)	Monocot vs. Dicots Ovary position ; nature of petals ; distinctness of petals	Flowering plants were put into 15 classes ; 100 orders	Natural system; each plant cleary differentialed , named, described
2	De Candolle (18th cen AD)	Nature of corolla, gamopetalous vs. Polypetalous corollas; ovary positions	Put plants into 161 families
3	Bentham & Hooker(1800-1884)- English	Nature of corolla & seeds, ovary position	Classifies plants into 200 orders , 7569 orders	Describes taxa of all levels

Systems based on Phylogeny

Sl. No.	Scientist	Characters	Types	Feature
1	Eichler(1839-1887)	Seeds	Cryptogamae – ferns, bryophytes, hepatics, fungi and algae& Phanerogamae- seed plants (thallophytes, bryophytes & pteridophytes)	Seed-plants were for the first time put into two major taxa – angiospermae & gynnospermae
2	Adolph Engler (1844-1930)	Monocots, dicots	Angiospermae and gymnospermae ; the angiospermae were divided into monocots and dicots ; and dicots further sub-divided	Provides means of identification of all of the known genera of plants from algae to advanced seed plants

Analysis & Synthesis

The Indian system of classification adopted right from the vedic times to the times of the puranas and other lexicons provide classification based on habits, dietetic value and also on botanical terms. In the modern science systems, the classification is based on habits, natural and artificial methods. The hierarchial system of classification adopted by the modern scientists and the binomial nomenclature adopted by the westerners is absent in our traditional Indian system. The divisions of plants based on properties and food-value tell us that the focus of the Indians had been mainly on finding the usefulness of each & every plant and putting them under a broad category. In addition to that, since the naming of plants was done by notable morphological features, it appealed  even to the common-man.

Conclusion

In both Indian and Modern systems, there is lot of science involved when it comes to identifying or naming plants. The plants were classed  depending on the knowledge existing at that time about the variety or nature of plants. The Indians had minor variations with respect to definitions of few classes of plant-varieties.The Westerners were fairly uniform on the definitions of various botanical terminologies.

अथर्ववेद

प्रस्तृणती स्तम्बिनीरेकशृङ्गः प्रतन्वतीरोषधीरा वदामि

अंशुमतीः काण्डिनीर्या विशाखा ह्वयामि ते वीरुदो वैश्वदेवीरुग्राः पुरूपजीवनी

या बभ्रवो याश्चा शुक्रा रोहिणीरुत पृश्नयः

असिक्नीः कृष्णा ओषधीः सर्वा अच्छावदामसि

मधुमन्मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन्मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव

मधुमत् पर्णं मधुमत् मधोः संभक्ता अमृतस्य भक्षो घृृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुंरोगवम्

प्रस्तृृणति स्तम्बिनिः एकसृङ्गोः तनुवतिः अंशुमतिः कण्डिनि विशाखाः

शुक्रा रोहिणीसुत पृश्नयः असिक्नीः कृष्णा

मधुमन्मूलं मधुमदग्रम् मधुमन्मध्यं मधुमत् पर्णं मधुमत् पुष्पम्

पाणिनि

बभाषौधिवनस्पतिभ्यः अवयवे च प्राण्यौषधिवृक्षेभ्यः

वनं पुरगामिश्रकासिघ्रकासारिकाकोटराग्रेभ्यः

प्रनिरन्तः शरेक्षुम्लक्षाम्रकार्ष्यखादिरपीयूक्षाभ्योऽसंज्ञयामपि

ओषधिवन

वनस्पतिवन

मनु

ओषधि वनस्पति वृक्ष गुल्म तृण प्रतान वल्ली

उद्भिज्जाः स्थावराः सर्वे बीजकाण्डप्ररोहिणः ।

ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ता बहुपुष्पकलोअगाः ॥

अपुष्पाः फलवन्तो ये ते वनस्पतयः स्मृताः ।

पुष्पिणः फलिनश्चैव वृक्षास्तूभयतः स्मृताः ॥

गुच्छगुल्मं तु विविधं तथैव तृणजातयः

बीजकाण्डरुहाण्येव प्रताना वल्लय एव च ॥

सुश्रुत   चरक

तासां स्थावराश्चतुर्विधाः

वनस्पतयो वृक्षा  वीरुध  ओषधय इति तासु अपुष्पाः फलवन्तो वनस्पतयः पुष्पफलवन्तो वृक्षाः प्रतानवत्यः स्तम्बिन्यश्च वीरुधः फलपाकनिष्ठा ओषधय इति

वनस्पतयस्तथा वीरुद्वानस्पत्यस्तथौषधिः फलैः वनस्पतिः पुष्पैः वानस्पतयः फलैरपि

ओषध्यः फलपाकान्ताः प्रतावैः वीरुधः स्मृताः

वनस्पति  वानस्पत्य

ओषधि वीरुध्

भागवत पुराण

वनस्पत्यौषधिलतात्वक्सारा वीरुधो द्रुमाः

उत्स्रोतरस्तमः प्राया अन्तः स्पर्शा विशेषिणः

वनस्पति द्रुम ओषधि लता त्वक्सार वीरुध्

मत्स्यपुराण

यदाभिषिक्तः सकलाधिराज्ये पृथुर्धत्र्यामधिपो बभूव

तदौषधीनामधिपं चकार यञव्रतानां तपसाञ्च चन्द्रम्

नक्षत्रतारद्विजवृक्षगुल्मलतावितानस्य च रुक्मगर्भः

अपामधीशं वरुणं धनानां राज्ञां प्रभुं वैश्रवणञ्च तद्वत्

जलजस्थलजैः पुष्पैः प्रोत्फुल्लैः उपधोभितम्

चित्रकन्दरसंस्थानं गुहागृहमनोहरम्

वृक्ष गुल्म  लता  वीरुध  वल्ली ओषधि कृष्ट स्वयम्जात जलज स्थलज

उपवनविनोद

वनस्पतिद्रुमलतागुल्माः पदजातयः

बीजात्काण्डात्तथा कन्दात्तज्जन्म त्रिविधं विदुः

वनस्पति  द्रुम   लता  गुल्म