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Pramana (Samskrit : प्रमाणम्) is the means or chief instrument of knowing valid knowledge (pramaa (प्रमा)). From the questions like who and what created the universe, determining the nature of objects, sprang an urge for investigation into the real state of things (Tatvajignasa). These queries led to investigation into identifying the criterion of what constitutes valid knowledge and the ways by which objects or things can be cognized ultimately theories of cognition have been formulated. Pramana is a subject that arose from the need to recognize valid knowledge and various theories have been proposed to describe the same.<ref name=":0">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy] University of North Bengal</ref>  

Pramana (Samskrit : प्रमाणम्) is the means or chief instrument of knowing valid knowledge (Prama । प्रमा)). From the questions like who and what created the universe, determining the nature of objects, sprang an urge for investigation into the real state of things (Tatvajignasa). These queries led to investigation into identifying the criterion of what constitutes valid knowledge and the ways by which objects or things can be cognized ultimately theories of cognition have been formulated. Pramana is a subject that arose from the need to recognize valid knowledge and various theories have been proposed to describe the same.<ref name=":0">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy] University of North Bengal</ref>

== परिचयः॥ Introduction ==

== परिचयः॥ Introduction ==

All thinkers in general have given their attention to the problem of cognition for a long time. Bharatiya tattva shastras are unique in that Jnana  (ज्ञानम् । knowledge), Prama (प्रमा । Right or valid knowledge) and Aprama (अप्रमा । invalid knowledge) are clearly distinct entities. Western tradition  defines 'knowledge' as truth, and justified true belief. Indian tradition does not have an equivalent word for belief. In Bharatiya shastras, Prama is explored in the context of fulfilling purusharthas, whereas western traditions do not have such an ultimate goal for exploring knowledge, thus for them knowledge is just for the sake of knowledge. Knowledge and Action are both related to the Mind. However, Action is dependent on the agent and his will (Kartr-tantra) while Knowledge is conditioned by its object (vastu-tantra). When a man decides to travel his will determines the mode of travel and the place to reach. This is not the case of Knowledge, it is independent of the will of the person, a pillar is a pillar and confirms to the vastu or object  and does not change even if the someone mistakes it for a man standing.<ref name=":1">Adhikary, Jaya. (2003) Ph. D. Thesis Title : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/137458/4/04_chapter_01.pdf The Nyaya Concepts of Prama Pramana and Pramanya :  A critical study.]'' University of North Bengal</ref>  

All thinkers in general have given their attention to the problem of cognition for a long time. Bharatiya tattva shastras are unique in that Jnana  (ज्ञानम् । knowledge), Prama (प्रमा । Right or valid knowledge) and [[Aprama (अप्रमा)|Aprama]] (अप्रमा । invalid knowledge) are clearly distinct entities. Western tradition  defines 'knowledge' as truth, and justified true belief. Indian tradition does not have an equivalent word for belief. In Bharatiya shastras, Prama is explored in the context of fulfilling purusharthas, whereas western traditions do not have such an ultimate goal for exploring knowledge, thus for them knowledge is just for the sake of knowledge. Knowledge and Action are both related to the Mind. However, Action is dependent on the agent and his will (Kartr-tantra) while Knowledge is conditioned by its object (vastu-tantra). When a man decides to travel his will determines the mode of travel and the place to reach. This is not the case of Knowledge, it is independent of the will of the person, a pillar is a pillar and confirms to the vastu or object  and does not change even if the someone mistakes it for a man standing.<ref name=":1">Adhikary, Jaya. (2003) Ph. D. Thesis Title : ''[http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in:8080/jspui/bitstream/10603/137458/4/04_chapter_01.pdf The Nyaya Concepts of Prama Pramana and Pramanya :  A critical study.]'' University of North Bengal</ref>  

Here for the sake of clarity, Jnana is considered as general knowledge, which on analysis or cognizance reveals true knowledge is called Prama or valid knowledge, and when this revelation is false it is called aprama or invalid knowledge.  

Here for the sake of clarity, Jnana is considered as general knowledge, which on analysis or cognizance reveals true knowledge is called Prama or valid knowledge, and when this revelation is false it is called aprama or invalid knowledge.  

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

According to Shabdakalpadhruma the term Pramana (प्रमाणम्) is derived from the dhatu मा (मा॒ माने) in the sense of measurement and cognition with an upasarga (prefix) प्र in the sense of प्रकृष्टः and pratyaya (suffix) lyut (ल्युट्).  

According to Shabdakalpadhruma the term Pramana (प्रमाणम्) is derived from the dhatu मा (मा॒ङ् माने) used in the sense of measurement and cognition with an upasarga (prefix) प्र which is used in the sense of प्रकृष्टः and the pratyaya (suffix) lyut (ल्युट्). The suffix 'lyut', being in the instrumental case. Pramana means the instrument by which some thing is rightly cognized. According to Prof. Korada Subrahmanyam,<ref>Paper Presentation by Prof. K. Subrahmanayam titled ''[https://groups.google.com/d/msg/bvparishat/xY1Y-wdPeSo/CKzUaFPABwAJ Pramāṇas in Indian Philosophy]'' </ref>  <blockquote>''Pramāṇa is the instrument by which the reality of essence of anything is ascertained (प्रमीयते परिच्छिद्यते वस्तुतत्त्वं येन तत्प्रमाणम् – माङ् माने or डुमिञ् प्रक्षेपणे – करणे ल्युट् – करणाधिकरणयोश्च पा^० ३-३-११७, प्रमाकरणं प्रमाणम्).''</blockquote>The word Pramana signifies the instrument because (it is derived as) "by this is rightly known" (Pramiyate anena). Loosely the term stands for knowledge as well as for the means of valid knowledge but in Nyaya logic it is generally used in the second sense.<ref name=":1" />

 

 

==प्रमाणतत्वम् ॥ Pramana Tattva==

==प्रमाणतत्वम् ॥ Pramana Tattva==

The tattva or the "true nature of", "the real knowledge about", "property really possessed by object", "assured cognition of an object" ; all these indicate an inquiry into the real state of things or objects.  Both "Jnana" and "Prama" indicate some kind of knowledge, however

The tattva or the "true nature of", "the real knowledge about", "property really possessed by object", "assured cognition of an object" ; all these indicate an inquiry into the real state of things or objects.  Both "Jnana" and "Prama" indicate some kind of knowledge, however

*ज्ञानम् । Jnana means all kinds of knowledge, true or false. Example: there is a rope or snake.

*ज्ञानम् । Jnana means all kinds of knowledge, true or false. Example: there is a rope or snake.

*यथार्थज्ञानम् । Yatharthajnana or Prama is when reality reveals true knowledge (valid knowledge). Example : knowledge of rope in a rope.

*यथार्थज्ञानम् । Yatharthajnana or Prama is when reality reveals true knowledge (valid knowledge). Example : knowledge of rope in a rope.

*अप्रमा । Aprama is when reality reveals false knowledge (invalid knowledge). Example :  knowledge of snake in a rope.

*अप्रमा । [[Aprama (अप्रमा)|Aprama]] is when reality reveals false knowledge (invalid knowledge). Example :  knowledge of snake in a rope.

While Jnana is used to denote knowledge from the psychological standpoint that helps in cognition of an object, Prama is used to indicate true knowledge in the logical sense, which denotes ability of recognizing the real nature and character of an object.  

While Jnana is used to denote knowledge from the psychological standpoint that helps in cognition of an object, Prama is used to indicate true knowledge in the logical sense, which denotes ability of recognizing the real nature and character of an object. The following section elaborates on the four factors which make up the system of cognition as generally agreed by scholars.  

Four basic factors make up the system of recognition. Vatsyayana Bhashya of Nyayasutras defines the 4 components as follows<blockquote>तत्र यस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य प्रवृत्तिः स प्रमाता । स येनार्थं प्रमिणोति तत्प्रमाणं । योऽर्थः प्रतीयते तत्प्रमेयं । यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । चतसृषु चैवंविधास्वार्थतत्वं परिसमाप्यते । <ref>Pt. Gangadhara Sastri Tailanga. (1896) The Nyayasutras with Vatsayana's Bhashya and Extracts from the Nyayavarttika and the Tatparyatika. ([https://archive.org/details/NyayaBhashyam-GangadharaTailanga/page/n48 Page 48 of PDF]) Benares : E. J. Lazarus & Co</ref></blockquote>

Four basic factors make up the system of recognition according to Nyaya darshana. Since all the fundamental aspects of cognition are explained in this shastra sutras from Nyaya are taken as a standard. Vatsyayana Bhashya of Nyayasutras defines the 4 components as follows<blockquote>तत्र यस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य प्रवृत्तिः स प्रमाता । स येनार्थं प्रमिणोति तत्प्रमाणं । योऽर्थः प्रतीयते तत्प्रमेयं । यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । चतसृषु चैवंविधास्वार्थतत्वं परिसमाप्यते । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5">Pt. Gangadhara Sastri Tailanga. (1896) The Nyayasutras with Vatsayana's Bhashya and Extracts from the Nyayavarttika and the Tatparyatika. ([https://archive.org/details/NyayaBhashyam-GangadharaTailanga/page/n48 Page 48 of PDF]) Benares : E. J. Lazarus & Co</ref></blockquote><blockquote>tatra yasyepsājihāsāprayuktasya pravr̥ttiḥ sa pramātā । sa yenārthaṁ pramiṇoti tatpramāṇaṁ । yo'rthaḥ pratīyate tatprameyaṁ । yadarthavijñānaṁ sā pramitiḥ । catasr̥ṣu caivaṁvidhāsvārthatatvaṁ parisamāpyate । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)</blockquote>

#The Prama (प्रमा) or Pramiti  : the valid knowledge (of an object), the right understanding

#The Prama (प्रमा) or Pramiti  : the valid knowledge (of an object), the right understanding

#The Prameya (प्रमेयः) : the knowable, the object to be known, the object of valid knowledge

#The Prameya (प्रमेयः) : the knowable, the object to be known, the object of valid knowledge

#The Pramana (प्रमाणम्) : the instrument with which Prameya is evaluated and known and is the chief instrument of valid knowledge

#The Pramana (प्रमाणम्) : the instrument with which Prameya is evaluated and known and is the chief instrument of valid knowledge

#The Pramaata (प्रमाता) : the knower of object, the cognizer of valid knowledge, one who uses pramana.

#The Pramata (प्रमाता) : the knower of object, the cognizer of valid knowledge, one who uses pramana.

Thus a Pramaata (knower of object) validates the Prama (right understanding) of a Prameya (the object to be known) through the means of Pramana (the instrument of that knowledge). All these four are required for the completion of  Arthatattva. So it can be said that valid knowledge is not possible if any one of them is absent. Western theories of philosophy use three factors namely, subject, object, and the resultant knowledge. Indian philosophy is distinct and unique in that the means or instrument of valid cognition or knowledge i.e., pramana.

Thus a Pramaata (knower of object) validates the Prama (right understanding) of a Prameya (the object to be known) through the means of Pramana (the instrument of that knowledge). All these four are required for the completion of  Arthatattva. So it can be said that valid knowledge is not possible if any one of them is absent. Western theories of philosophy use three factors namely, subject, object, and the resultant knowledge. Indian philosophy is distinct and unique in that the means or instrument of valid cognition or knowledge i.e., pramana.<ref name=":3">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy. [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf (Chapter 2)] University of North Bengal</ref>

Example : A very simplified common place example of these 4 constituents  of Arthatattva may be given as about purchase fruits or vegetables in a market.  

Example : A very simplified common place example of these 4 constituents  of Arthatattva may be given as about purchase fruits or vegetables in a market.  

* Pramata is the person who is weighing and acquiring this knowledge of a specified quantity of vegetables or fruits of 1 Kg.  

* Pramata is the person who is weighing and acquiring this knowledge of a specified quantity of vegetables or fruits of 1 Kg.  

=== प्रमा ॥ Prama ===

== प्रमा ॥ Prama ==

According to Nyaya, as given previously Prama is a definite or certain (असं दिग्धम् । asandigdha), unerring (यथार्थ । yatartha) knowledge and it consists of knowing the object as it is.   

'''Nyaya''' : यदर्थविज्ञानं सा प्रमितिः । yadarthavijñānaṁ sā pramitiḥ । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" />

 

Nyaya darshana considers that Prama is a definite or certain (असं दिग्धम् । asandigdha), unerring (यथार्थ । yatartha) knowledge and it consists of knowing the object as it is. Thus the nature of the truth is तद्वति तत्प्रकारकम्  which means the object of knowledge is ''in toto'' without any distortion. 

 

 

 

'''Samkhya''' : द्वयोरेकतरस्यवाप्यसन्निकृष्टार्थपरिच्छित्तिः प्रमा ...(प्रमा स्वरूपं) । dvayorekatarasyavāpyasannikr̥ṣṭārthaparicchittiḥ pramā... (pramā svarūpaṁ) ।(Samk. Sutr. 1.87)<ref name=":7">Samkhya [https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF Sutras]</ref>

 

 

 

Annambhatta in his Tarkasangraha explains, Yatartha jnana is Prama. He clearly defines the difference between Prama and Aprama as follows<blockquote>॥ तद्वति तप्रकारकोऽनुभवो यथार्थः। यथा रजते इदं रजतमिति ज्ञानम्। सैव प्रमेच्युते ॥१९॥॥ <ref name=":2">Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Gunalakshana Prakarana])</ref></blockquote>Summary : Thus Prama is that which pertains to यथार्थानुभवः। definite knowledge of an object which is true presentational in character, just as the knowledge an object of silver as "this is silver". Here the knowledge about the quality of silverness (रजतत्वम्) of the object is ''in toto'' without any distortion to silver.

Vatsyayana Bhashya for Nyaya Sutra 9 is as follows as given under each lakshana explaining the 12 kinds of Prameya given by the Sutras.

=== आत्मा ॥ Atma ===

* '''Sutra''' : इच्छाद्वेषप्रयत्नसुखदुःखज्ञानानि आत्मनः लिङ्गं इति ।।१०।। {आत्मलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> icchādveṣaprayatnasukhaduḥkhajñānāni ātmanaḥ liṅgaṁ iti ।।10।। {ātmalakṣaṇam} Meaning : Desire (इच्छा), desire to keep away from something (द्वेषः), Action (प्रयत्नः), pleasure, pain and knowledge (सुखदुःखज्ञानानि) are the marks of Atma.

* '''Bhashya''' : तत्रात्मा सर्वस्य द्रष्टा सर्वस्य भोक्ता सर्वज्ञः सर्वानुभावो । tatrātmā sarvasya draṣṭā sarvasya bhoktā sarvajñaḥ sarvānubhāvo । (Page 71 of Reference <ref name=":5" />) Atma (soul) is the drashta (perceiver of all that brings about pain and pleasure), the bhokta (experiencer of all pains and pleasures), sarvajna (knower of all knowledge), sarvanubhava (experience of all things).

But knowledge is invalid (अयथार्थ । ayatartha) when a character not possessed by the object of cognition is attributed to that object and is called Aprama.<ref name=":3">Harh, Amal Kumar. (1994) Ph. D Thesis Title : The Means of knowing a negative fact a critical study on the theory of Anupalabdhi in Indian philosophy. [http://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/137453/7/07_chapter_02.pdf (Chapter 2)] University of North Bengal</ref><blockquote>तदभाववति तत्प्रकारकोऽनुभवोऽयथार्थः। यथा शुक्ताविदं रजतमिति। सैव अप्रमा इत्युच्यते॥२०॥<ref name=":2" /></blockquote>Summary : When a piece of shell is called "this is silver", then the cognition is invalid. For in this case "silverness" is a quality which does not belong to the shell but is being attributed to it is called Aprama.<ref name=":3" />

* '''Sutra''' : चेष्टेन्द्रियार्थाश्रयः शरीरम्।।११।। {शरीरलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" />ceṣṭendriyārthāśrayaḥ śarīram।।11।। {śarīralakṣaṇam} ''w''hich means the base or location for action (चेष्टा), sense-organs  (इन्द्रियानि) and objects (अर्थः) is sharira (body).  

* '''Bhashya''' : तस्य भोगायतनं शरीरम् । tasya bhogāyatanaṁ śarīram । The base of Atma's experiences is the body.(Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* '''Sutra''' : घ्राणरसनचक्षुस्त्वक्श्रोत्राणि इन्द्रियाणि भूतेभ्यः ।।१२।। {इन्द्रियलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> ghrāṇarasanacakṣustvakśrotrāṇi indriyāṇi bhūtebhyaḥ ।।12।। {indriyalakṣaṇam} It means the sense organs ( organs of smell, taste, vision, sensation, audition) are made from material substances (panchamahabhutas).  

 

There are other versions about what constitutes Prama by different Bharatiya shastras.<ref name=":3" />

* '''Bhashya''' : भोगसाधनानीन्द्रियाणि । bhogasādhanānīndriyāṇi । Indriyas are the instruments of experience for the Atma. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* Kapila defines Prama as determinate (confirmed after verification) knowledge not known before (अपूर्वनिश्चितज्ञानम्). (Samkhya)

* Prabhakara holds Prama as immediate experience (Anubhuti). (One school of Mimamsa)

* Bhatta mentions Prama as that which pertains to a novel object (Anadhigatatva). (Another school of Mimamsa)

=== प्रमेयः ॥ Prameya ===

=== अर्थः ॥ Objects ===

* '''Bhashya''' : भोक्तव्या इन्द्रियार्थाः । bhoktavyā indriyārthāḥ । Arthas are Objects to be experienced. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

Pramana i.e., the instrument of Prama is the most fundamental and unique about the tattva shastras. Nyaya darshana deals extensively about the siddhantas of jnana (theory of Knowledge). The means of Prama (valid cognition) is termed Pramana as explained by the Vatsyayana bhashya given below.<blockquote>प्रमाणतोऽर्थप्रतिपत्तौ प्रवृत्तिसामर्ध्यादर्थवत् प्रमाणम् ॥... </blockquote><blockquote>तस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य... प्रवृत्ति</blockquote>The effort of the agent stimulated this desire to acquire (ईप्सा) and the desire to get rid of the thing Jihasa roga etc) is what is called exertion (pravrti).<ref>Ganganath Jha ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Sutra 1])</ref> Two of these together inspire by  Prvritti or Action. <blockquote>अर्थस्तु सुखं सुखहेतुः दुखं दुखहेतुश्च</blockquote>Page 22 of Jha's book.

Gautama in his Nyayasutras lays down that there are four kinds of Pramanas.  

* '''Sutra''' : बुद्धिः उपलब्धिः ज्ञानं इति अनर्थान्तरम्।।१५।।{बुद्धिलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> ''buddhiḥ upalabdhiḥ jñānaṁ iti anarthāntaram।।15।।{buddhilakṣaṇam}'' Essence is that Buddhi is synonymous with knowledge (ज्ञानं) in Nyaya darshana.

* '''Bhashya''' : भोगो बुद्धिः । bhogo buddhiḥ । Experience form of Knowledge (Jnana and Upalabdhi) is Buddhi.

===   प्रमाता ॥ Pramata ===

=== मनः ॥ Manas ===

== प्रमाणसङ्ख्या ॥ Number of Pramanas ==

* '''Bhashya''' : सर्वार्थोपलब्धौ नेन्द्रियाणि प्रभवन्तीति सर्वविषयमन्तःकरणं मनः । sarvārthopalabdhau nendriyāṇi prabhavantīti sarvaviṣayamantaḥkaraṇaṁ manaḥ । Manas is that internal organ which is capable of experiencing (sukha and dukha) all things of which even the Indriyas (being limited in their scope) are incapable to do. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

Pramanas though are ten in number, though 6 (Shadpramanas) of them are widely accepted though major schools of darshanas

#Pratyaksha (perception)

#Abhaava (negation or non-apprehension)

A brief description of all the Pramanas are as follows

===Pratyaksha Pramana===

[[Pratyaksha]] (Samskrit : ) pramana  is made of two words Prati and Aksha.  Meaning : In front of the eyes. Knowledge which is produced by the contact of a sense-organ with an object. Perception is a source of direct knowledge and leads one to apprehend the reality. All other means of knowledge are indirect sources of apprehending reality. Example: When the sense-organ, i.e. eye, comes in direct contact with a pot, there arises a perceptual knowledge of pot.

According to Nyaya Sutra<blockquote>इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षोत्पन्नं ज्ञानं अव्यपदेश्यं अव्यभिचारि व्यवसायात्मकं प्रत्यक्षम् ।।४।।{प्रत्यक्षलक्षणम्} <ref name=":4">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref> </blockquote>According to Vatsyayana Bhasyam of Nyaya sutra (1.1.4)<ref>Gangantha Jha [https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras Translation]</ref> <blockquote>इन्द्रियस्यार्थेन सन्निकर्षादुत्पद्यते यत् ज्ञानं, तत् प्रत्यक्षम् ॥</blockquote>not expressible by words, not erroneous, doubtless with crystal clear clarity

* '''Sutra''' : प्रवृत्तिः वाग्बुद्धिशरीरारम्भः।।१७।।{प्रवृत्तिलक्षणम्} pravr̥ttiḥ vāgbuddhiśarīrārambhaḥ।।17।।{pravr̥ttilakṣaṇam} It means that Activity consists of Speech, action of Mind and action of Body.

According to Annambhatta's Tarkasangraha<blockquote>इन्द्रियार्थसन्निकर्षजन्यं ज्ञानं प्रत्यक्षम्। <ref>Tarkasamgraha ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Pratyakshanirupanam])</ref></blockquote>Pratyaksha pramana is the primary and fundamental of all the sources of valid knowledge and it is universally recognized so by all schools of philosophy. According to Nyaya , perception is not the only source of our knowledge, but is the basis of the other sources or means of knowledge.

===Anumana Pramana===

* '''Sutra''' : प्रवर्त्तनालक्षणाः दोषाः।।१८।।{दोषलक्षणम्} pravarttanālakṣaṇāḥ doṣāḥ।।18।।{doṣalakṣaṇam} Doshas (defects imperfection) are the cause for inciting a person into activity.

* '''Bhashya''' : शरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिसुखवेदनानां निवृत्तिकारणं प्रवृत्तिः दोषाश्च । नास्येदं शरीरमपूर्वमनुत्तरं च । śarīrendriyārthabuddhisukhavedanānāṁ nivr̥ttikāraṇaṁ pravr̥ttiḥ doṣāśca । nāsyedaṁ śarīramapūrvamanuttaraṁ ca । Body, sense-organs, objects (artha), pleasure and pain are all products of Activity and Defects (doshas such as raga etc). (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

अथ तत्पूर्वकं त्रिविधं अनुमानं पूर्ववत्शेषवत्सामान्यतोदृष्टं च ।। ५ ।। {अनुमानलक्षणम्} <ref name=":4" />

* '''Sutra''' : पुनरुत्पत्तिः प्रेत्यभावः ।।१९।।{प्रेत्यभावलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> punarutpattiḥ pretyabhāvaḥ ।।19।।{pretyabhāvalakṣaṇam} Rebirth which consists of being born again after death is Pretyabhava.

Pg no 26 of Vatsyayana bhas

* '''Bhashya''' : पूर्वशरीराणामादिर्नास्ति उत्तरेषामपवर्गो अन्तः इति प्रेत्यभावः । pūrvaśarīrāṇāmādirnāsti uttareṣāmapavargo antaḥ iti pretyabhāvaḥ । For an Atma this body is neither the first one nor is the last. In terms of previous bodies there is no such thing as first one. In terms of future existence of bodies Apavarga is the last. This indicates existence of rebirth. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

Translation of Jha Page 45 - mark is linga and object indicated by the mark is lingi. Rememberance - smriti, non-perceptible is Apratyaksham, inferred is anumana. perception is darshanam.  

* '''Sutra''' : प्रवृत्तिदोषजनितः अर्थः फलम्।।२०।।{फललक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> pravr̥ttidoṣajanitaḥ arthaḥ phalam।।20।।{phalalakṣaṇam} Meaning : Result in the form of Artha (Object) is what is produced due to action and dosha.

Page no 13 of Reference 2

* '''Bhashya''' : ससाधनसुखदःखोपभोगः फलम् । sasādhanasukhadaḥkhopabhogaḥ phalam । Experience of pleasure, pain along with the instruments leading to them is the Result. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

Thus anumana depends totally on previous experiences through pratyaksha and this knowledge follows other knowledge. Example : where there is smoke there is fire. It is of three types

* '''Sutra''' : बाधनालक्षणं दुःखम्।।२१।।{दुःखलक्षणम्}<ref name=":8" /> bādhanālakṣaṇaṁ duḥkham।।21।।{duḥkhalakṣaṇam} Meaning : The experience of suffering or injury consists of Pain.

* '''Bhashya''' : दुःखमिति, नेदमनुकूलवेदनीयस्य सुखस्य प्रतीतेः प्रत्याख्यानं । किं तर्हि जन्मन एवेदम् । duḥkhamiti, nedamanukūlavedanīyasya sukhasya pratīteḥ pratyākhyānaṁ । kiṁ tarhi janmana evedam । By the special mention of 'Pain' (and the omission of 'pleasure') it is not meant that there is no pleasure at all. Birth is intended as Pain here. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

Purvavat Page 27 meghonnatya bhavishyati vrsthihi or अथवा ... अनुमानम् यथा धूमेनाग्निरिति

* '''Bhashya''' : सुखसाधनस्य दुःखानुषङ्गदुखेन अविप्रयोगाद्विविध-बन्धनायोगाद्दुःखमिति समाधिभावनमुपदिश्यते समाहितो भावयति भावययन्निर्विद्यते विर्विण्णस्य वैराग्यं विरक्तस्यापवर्ग इति । जन्ममरणप्रवन्धोच्छेदः सर्वदुःखप्रहाणमपवर्ग इति । अस्य तु तत्वज्ञानादपवर्गो मिथ्थाज्ञानात्संसार इति । sukhasādhanasya duḥkhānuṣaṅgadukhena aviprayogādvividha-bandhanāyogādduḥkhamiti samādhibhāvanamupadiśyate samāhito bhāvayati bhāvayayannirvidyate virviṇṇasya vairāgyaṁ viraktasyāpavarga iti । janmamaraṇapravandhocchedaḥ sarvaduḥkhaprahāṇamapavarga iti । asya tu tatvajñānādapavargo miththājñānātsaṁsāra iti ।(Vats. Bhas. Page 71 and 72)<ref name=":5" />

All the instruments of Sukha are adhered to dukha and can be never separated from it. The presence of various difficulties in life indicate Dukha is inseparable from life. One should practice Samadhi (thoughtful contemplation). As when one is thoughtful he comprehends the situation and diverts himself from the worldly things making him free from all attachment thus attaining Apavarga which is nothing but cessation of cycle of births and deaths. Liberation from all sorrows is Apavarga. (Pg 52 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

Sheshavat Page 27 sheshavat yatra karyena karyam anumeyate. Purvodaka vipareeta.. untilm vrishti iti.  Or Sheshavan nama... until gunatvapratipattihi.

Thus completes the 12 kinds of Prameya. The next section deals with Pramana.

Samanyato drishtam Page 27 Samanyoto dristam .... vrajeti example. Or Samanyto dristam nama (definition) until gamyate. example Yathechadibhiratma til sa atmeti.

===Shabda Pramana===

Shabda literally means verbal knowledge. Shabda pramana is also called as Agama pramana, sastra pramana according to the school of thought. "sabdha vijnanata samyag sannikrsharta anubhavah agamaha" that evidence about objects realized by the power of words and sentences is called Shabhda pramana.  This knowledge depends on reliable authority and also on aakaksha, yogyata and aasatti of a sentence. Different sounds such as those arising from musical instruments and bamboos also contribute to the realization of this knowledge. "Agama," literally means "that which has come", contextually it means that evidence which is realized by the process of understanding scriptures from rishis who constitute reliable authority.  Agama pramanas are divided in two parts - Apaurusheya and Paurusheya. Vedas, upanishadas, puranas, dharma sastras, and smritis are "apaurusheya,” or of non human origin.   The words of rishis and elders constitute "paurusheya pramanas.   Basically paurusheya pramanas ultimately do not contradict the Vedas.

* '''Nyaya :''' The means of Prama (valid cognition) is termed Pramana as explained by the Vatsyayana bhashya given below.<blockquote>प्रमाणतोऽर्थप्रतिपत्तौ प्रवृत्तिसामर्थ्थदर्थवत् प्रमाणम् ।... तस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य समीहा प्रवृत्तिरित्युच्यते । pramāṇato'rthapratipattau pravr̥ttisāmarththadarthavat pramāṇam ।... tasyepsājihāsāprayuktasya samīhā pravr̥ttirityucyate । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /> </blockquote>Meaning : The effort of the agent (man) stimulated by the desire to acquire (Ipsa । ईप्सा) and the desire to get rid of the thing (जिहासा । Jihasa roga etc) is what is called प्रवृत्तिः (pravrtti । exertion). Two of these together inspire the agent into Prvritti or Action. (Page 20 of Reference <ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) Gautama's Nyayasutras With Vatsyayana Bhashya. Poona : Oriental Book Agency. ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Page no 20])</ref>) <blockquote>अर्थस्तु सुखं सुखहेतुः दुखं दुखहेतुश्च । arthastu sukhaṁ sukhahetuḥ dukhaṁ dukhahetuśca । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote> Summary : The अर्थ (object or thing) cognised by means of Pramana, or the instrument of cognition is of four kinds, viz., Pleasure, Source of Pleasure, Pain, Source of Pain. These objects of cognition, however, are innumerable owing to the fact of the number of living creatures being infinite (Page 22 of Reference <ref name=":6" />).

* '''Samkhya''' :  The determination of something not (previously) lodged in neither both (Sense-organs and Objects), nor in one or other of them, is Prama, the right knowledge. The instrument of highest degree to obtain a Prama is Pramana; and these are of three types (Pratyaksha, Anumana, Shabda).

<blockquote>द्वयोरेकतरस्य चापि असन्निकृष्टार्थपरिच्छित्तिः प्रमा, तत्साधकतमं यत्तत्त्रिविधं प्रमाणं । सांख्यसूत्र-१.८७ । (प्रमा स्वरूपं, प्रमाणेयत्ता च) dvayorekatarasyavāpyasannikr̥ṣṭārthaparicchittiḥ pramā, tatsādhakatamaṁ yattattrividhaṁ pramāṇaṁ । sāṁkhyasūtra-1.87 । (pramā svarūpaṁ, pramāṇeyattā ca) (Samk. Sutr. 1.87)<ref name=":7" /> </blockquote>According to another scholar Pramana is defined as प्रकृष्टरूपेण अनुमाति अनेन (Page 12 of Reference <ref name=":1" />)<blockquote>''"To know an object correctly is a kind of proper measurement of an object. 'knowing' is metaphorically called 'measuring' through our cognition. As a valid cognition gives us a picture of a particular object, it may be described as 'intellectual measurement'."''</blockquote>Various schools of Darshanas, more or less agree with respect to the literal meaning as well as the function or purpose of Pramana that it is conducive to valid knowledge (Prama). While all agree that Pramana is defined as the instrument or Karana of Prama, there is much diversity of opinion among the Darshanika schools as to the exact nature and scope of the karana of valid knowledge. (Pages 39 to 42 of Reference <ref name=":3" />)

* Prabhakara school of Mimamsa considers pramana as an immediate experience (anubhuti) which is different from memory or Smrti.

* Bhatta school of Mimamsa and Advaita defines pramana as instrument of valid cognition of an object which is previously unknown and is not sublated later on.

* Samkhya school also defines it as an exceptional instrument of valid cognition.

* Nyaya and Vaiseshika both accept pramana as instrument of valid cognition - pramakaranam pramanam.

* Tarka school holds that karana is the uncommon causal condition (asadharana karanam), and pramana is an active special uncommon cause of knowledge or prama.

* Vishishtadvaita too accepts that pramana is means of valid knowledge, which has for its content something that is adapted to practical needs of life.

* Dvaita school also accepts that pramana is that which comprehends an object as it is, yatartha pramanam.

There are atleast ten kinds of Pramanas, but in the matter of recognizing different pramanas, different schools of Indian Philosophy adopted divergent schemes. The number of pramanas accepted by the important schools vary from one to eight. (Page 33 of Reference<ref name=":3" />)

#Charvakas accept pratyaksha pramana (perception) only as a single means of knowledge.

#Nastika Darshanas accept pratyaksha (perception) and anumana (inference).

#Vaiseshika, Samkhya, Yoga, Dvaita, Visishtaadvaita schools of Uttara Mimamsa recognize 3 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda or agama (verbal testimony) as the means of knowledge.

#Prabhakara school of Purva Mimamsa accepts 5 Pramanas - pratyaksha (perception), anumana (inference) and shabda or agama (verbal testimony) and Upamana (comparison) and arthaapatti (presumption) as the means of knowledge.

#Kumarilabhatta school of Purva Mimamsa and Advaita Vedanta of Uttara Mimamsa school both accept 6 pramanas - Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Shabda or Agama (verbal testimony), Upamana (comparison), Arthaapatti (presumption) and Anupalabdhi (negation or non-apprehension) as the means of knowledge.

#Pauranikas admit the above 6 with the addition of Sambhava (probability or inclusion)  and Aitihya (tradition or rumour).

#A few other thinkers (Buddhist) accept Pratibha (vivid imagination) as a source of knowledge taking the number of pramanas to eleven.  

Of these six of them ([[ShadPramanas (षड्प्रमाणाः)|Shad Pramanas]])have been been discussed at length.

==== Pramana and Pramanabhasa ====

===Upamana Pramana===

The means of knowledge have reference to an object. Pramana produces valid knowledge, the object of which exists in the actual world, whereas, Pramanabhasa produces only illusory knowledge.<ref name=":1" />

The knowledge of similarity is generated by Upamana. This knowledge arises by the use of comparison of two things and the presence of some common factors in a thing. However, the word Upamana has been translated variously as comparison, analogy, identification, knowledge by similarity and knowledge by assimilation. It is derived from the words Upa meaning saadrisya or similarity and maana meaning cognition.

==   प्रमाता ॥ Pramata ==

===Arthaapatti Pramana===

<blockquote>तत्र यस्येप्साजिहासाप्रयुक्तस्य प्रवृत्तिः स प्रमाता । tatra yasyepsājihāsāprayuktasya pravr̥ttiḥ sa pramātā । (Vats. Bhas. Intro Before Sutra 1)<ref name=":5" /></blockquote>Pramata refers to the person involved in action (प्रवृत्तिः) motivated (प्रयुक्ता) by the desire to obtain an object (ईप्सा) or desire to keep away an object (जिहासा).

Arthapatti is the presumption of something for the explanation of a known fact. The word arthaapatti gies under various translations as presumption, postulation, supposition, implication, and assumption. When a given or perceived fact cannot be explained without some other fact we have to presuppose or postulate the existence of this other fact even though we do not perceive it. Example : when a particular person named Chaitra, known to be alive, is not found in his house, it is assumed that he must be somewhere outside.  What is presumed is said to be a distinct source of knowledge.

Knowledge by which we immediately cognize the non-existence of an object, e.g. absence of rainfall indicates that the connection of cloud and the wind has not happened.

== References ==

== References ==