Changes

== Division, Classification and Number of Padarthas ==

== Division, Classification and Number of Padarthas ==

There are different schools of thought regarding the division, classification and number of padarthas.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">Joglekar, Aishwarya & Bhojani, Meera. (2022). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361305639_Padartha Padartha]. DOI -10.47468/CSNE.2022.e01.s09.099. </ref>

There are different schools of thought regarding the division, classification and number of padarthas.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":2">Joglekar, Aishwarya & Bhojani, Meera. (2022). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361305639_Padartha Padartha]. DOI -10.47468/CSNE.2022.e01.s09.099. </ref> Every darshana shastra has its own set of categories that are used to describe its philosophy.

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

|+Classification of Padarthas as per different schools<ref name=":2" />

|+Classification of Padarthas as per different schools<ref name=":2" />

|1

|1

|

|

|Brahma

|[[Brahman (ब्रह्मन्)|Brahman]]

|-

|-

| colspan="2" |Vedanta<ref name=":1" />

| colspan="2" |Vedanta<ref name=":1" />

|-

|-

| colspan="2" |Vaiseshika Darshana

| colspan="2" |Vaiseshika Darshana

|6

|6 + 1

|....द्रव्यगुणकर्मसामान्य विशेषसमवायानां पदार्थानां... (। वैशेषिक-१,१.४ ।)

|....द्रव्यगुणकर्मसामान्य विशेषसमवायानां पदार्थानां... (। वैशेषिक-१,१.४ ।)

|

|

# Visesha (विशेषः)

# Visesha (विशेषः)

# Samavaya (समवायः)

# Samavaya (समवायः)

|-

|-

| colspan="2" |Tarka Sangraha

| colspan="2" |Tarka Sangraha

|10

|10

|

|

|Dravya, Guna, Karma, Samanya, Vishesha, Vishita, Anshi, Shadrisha, Shakti, Abhava

|Dravya (Substance), Guna (Quality), Karma (Action), Samanya (Universality), Visesa (Particular), Visishta (the specified), Amshin (the whole), Shakti (Potency), Sadrshya (Similarity), Abhaava (non existence)

|-

|-

| colspan="2" |Nyaya Darshana

| colspan="2" |Nyaya Darshana

|25

|25

|

|

|Basic realms or components of the evolution of the universe, namely the Avyakta, Purusha, Mahat, Ahankara, Pancha Tanmatra, Ekadasha Indriya,  

|Basic realms or components of the evolution of the universe, namely the Purusha, Prakriti (Moola), Mahat, Ahamkara, Manas, 10 Indriyas, 5 Tanmatras, 5 Mahabhutas)

|-

|-

| colspan="2" |Yoga

| colspan="2" |Yoga

== पदार्थज्ञानाप्रयोजनम् ॥ Padartha Jnana Prayojana ==

== पदार्थज्ञानाप्रयोजनम् ॥ Padartha Jnana Prayojana ==

The Nyaya shastra explicitly dealing with the process of Reasoning, Means of right cognition and other Padarthas (categories) is the lamp for all tattva shastras; the Means (of Knowledge) of all things and is the very basis of all activities of the universe and hence expounded at the very outset of investigative procedures. The very first Nyaya sutra states that the attainment of [[Nihshreyasa (निःश्रेयसम्)|Nihshreyasa]] is the goal of the knowledge of Padarthas. Now does Nihshreyasa or the Ultimate Good appear immediately after gaining "true knowledge" or padartha jnana? to which the following sutra answers, that after gaining padartha jnana<blockquote>दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरापायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.2)<ref name=":4" />  

The Nyaya shastra explicitly dealing with the process of Reasoning, Means of right cognition and other Padarthas (categories) is the lamp for all tattva shastras; the Means (of Knowledge) of all things and is the very basis of all activities of the universe and hence expounded at the very outset of investigative procedures. The very first Nyaya sutra states that the attainment of [[Nihshreyasa (निःश्रेयसम्)|Nihshreyasa]] is the goal of the knowledge of Padarthas. Now does [[Nihshreyasa (निःश्रेयसम्)|Nihshreyasa]] or the Ultimate Good appear immediately after gaining "true knowledge" or padartha jnana? to which the following sutra answers, that after gaining padartha jnana<blockquote>दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरापायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.2)<ref name=":4" />  

duḥkhajanmapravr̥ttidōṣamithyājñānānāṁ uttarōttarāpāyē tadanantarāpāyātapavargaḥ।।2।। {padārthōddēśasūtram} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.2)</blockquote>There is cessation of each of the following series, the cessation of that which follows brings about the annihilation of that which precedes it and ultimately leads to Nihshreyasa or the Ultimate Good of any being.<ref name=":6" />

duḥkhajanmapravr̥ttidōṣamithyājñānānāṁ uttarōttarāpāyē tadanantarāpāyātapavargaḥ।।2।। {padārthōddēśasūtram} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.2)</blockquote>There is cessation of each of the following series, the cessation of that which follows brings about the annihilation of that which precedes it and ultimately leads to Nihshreyasa or the Ultimate Good of any being.<ref name=":6" />

dharmaviśēṣa prasūtāt dravyaguṇakarmasāmānya viśēṣasamavāyānāṁ padārthānāṁ sādharmyavaidharmyābhyāṁ tattvajñānānniḥśrēyasam | vaiśēṣika-1,1.4 |</blockquote>

dharmaviśēṣa prasūtāt dravyaguṇakarmasāmānya viśēṣasamavāyānāṁ padārthānāṁ sādharmyavaidharmyābhyāṁ tattvajñānānniḥśrēyasam | vaiśēṣika-1,1.4 |</blockquote>

  [[Dravya (द्रव्यम्)|Dravya]] (Substance), Guna (Attribute or Quality), Karma (Action), Samanya (Generality), Visesha (Particularity), Samavaya (Inherence) are the six padarthas whose knowledge leads to [[Nihshreyasa (निःश्रेयसम्)|Nihshreyasa]].

  [[Dravya (द्रव्यम्)|Dravya]] (Substance), Guna (Attribute or Quality), Karma (Action), Samanya (Generality), Visesha (Particularity), Samavaya (Inherence) are the six padarthas whose knowledge leads to [[Nihshreyasa (निःश्रेयसम्)|Nihshreyasa]].<ref name=":1" />

A brief introduction each of the six categories is given below.

A brief introduction each of the six categories is given below.

=== द्रव्याणि ॥ Dravya ===

=== द्रव्याणि ॥ Dravya - Substance ===

'''Vaiseshika darshana defines 9 Dravyas or Substances.''' They are causal in nature, hence called Karana Dravyas. Karya Dravyas aree innumerable effect substances, produced by the combinations of Karana dravyas.  

'''Vaiseshika darshana defines nine Dravyas or Substances.''' They are causal in nature, hence called Karana Dravyas. Karya Dravyas are innumerable effect substances, produced by the combinations of Karana dravyas.  

* पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.५ । pr̥thivyāpastējō vāyurākāśaṁ kālō digātmā mana iti dravyāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.5 |<ref name=":5">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref>

* पृथिव्यापस्तेजो वायुराकाशं कालो दिगात्मा मन इति द्रव्याणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.५ । pr̥thivyāpastējō vāyurākāśaṁ kālō digātmā mana iti dravyāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.5 |<ref name=":5">[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D Vaiseshika Sutras]</ref>

*[[Prthvi (पृथ्वी)|Prthvi]], [[Jala (जलम्)|Jala]], Tejas, Vayu, Akasha, [[Kala (कालः)|Kala]], Dik, [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Manas (मनः)|Manas]] are the only substances.

*[[Prthvi (पृथ्वी)|Prthvi]], [[Jala (जलम्)|Jala]], Tejas, Vayu, Akasha, [[Kala (कालः)|Kala]], Dik, [[Atman (आत्मन्)|Atman]] and [[Manas (मनः)|Manas]] are the only substances.

* Causal substances are considered to be independent and permanent.

* Causal substances are considered to be independent and permanent.

=== गुणाः ॥ Gunas ===

=== गुणाः ॥ Gunas - Qualities ===

'''Guna or quality/attribute are 17 in number as enumerated by Maharshi Kanada.''' Quality is a unique characteristic dependent on the substance or dravya. It cannot exist independently. Quality cannot possess another quality. It is inherent and static in the substance and cannot be separated, just as sweetness can never be separated from sugar as long as sugar exists.

'''Guna or quality/attribute are seventeen in number as enumerated by Maharshi Kanada.''' [[Gunas or Qualities : An Ayurvedic perspective (आयुर्वेदे गुणाः)|Gunas or Qualities]] is a unique characteristic dependent on the substance or dravya. It cannot exist independently. Quality cannot possess another quality. It is inherent and static in the substance and cannot be separated, just as sweetness can never be separated from sugar as long as sugar exists.

* रुपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । ruparasagandhasparśāḥ saṁkhyāḥ parimāṇāni pr̥thaktvaṁ saṁyōgavibhāgau paratvāparatvē buddhayaḥ sukhaduḥkhē icchādvēṣau prayatnāśca guṇāḥ | vaiśēṣika-1,1.6 |<ref name=":5" />

* रुपरसगन्धस्पर्शाः संख्याः परिमाणानि पृथक्त्वं संयोगविभागौ परत्वापरत्वे बुद्धयः सुखदुःखे इच्छाद्वेषौ प्रयत्नाश्च गुणाः । वैशेषिक-१,१.६ । ruparasagandhasparśāḥ saṁkhyāḥ parimāṇāni pr̥thaktvaṁ saṁyōgavibhāgau paratvāparatvē buddhayaḥ sukhaduḥkhē icchādvēṣau prayatnāśca guṇāḥ | vaiśēṣika-1,1.6 |<ref name=":5" />

* Rūpa  (Colour), Rasa  (Taste), Gandha  (Smell), Sparśa  (Touch), Saṅkhyā  (Number), Parimāṇa  (Dimension), Pṛthakatva​  (Distinctiveness), Saṃyoga  (Conjunction), Vibhāga  (Disjunction), Paratva  (Priority), Aparatva  (Posteriority), Buddhi  (Knowledge), Sukha  (Pleasure), Dukha  (Pain), Icchā  (Desire), Dveṣa  (Aversion), Prayatna  (Effort) are Gunas.

* Rūpa  (Colour), Rasa  (Taste), Gandha  (Smell), Sparśa  (Touch), Saṅkhyā  (Number), Parimāṇa  (Dimension), Pṛthakatva​  (Distinctiveness), Saṃyoga  (Conjunction), Vibhāga  (Disjunction), Paratva  (Priority), Aparatva  (Posteriority), Buddhi  (Knowledge), Sukha  (Pleasure), Dukha  (Pain), Icchā  (Desire), Dveṣa  (Aversion), Prayatna  (Effort) are Gunas.

* Prasatapada, the 4th century scholar who greatly elaborated on Vaisesika Sutra, added seven more, namely, Gurutva (heaviness); Dravatva (fluidity); Sneha (viscidity); Dharma (merit or virtue); Adharma (demerit or non-virtue); Samskara (tendency); Shabda (sound).

* Prasatapada, the 4th century scholar who greatly elaborated on Vaisesika Sutra, added seven more, namely, Gurutva (heaviness); Dravatva (fluidity); Sneha (viscidity); Dharma (merit or virtue); Adharma (demerit or non-virtue); Samskara (tendency); Shabda (sound).<ref name=":7">https://www.academia.edu/35628324/Vai%C5%9Besika_Darshana_The_Vedic_Atomic_Theory</ref>

* Ayurveda Acharya Charaka added 17 gunas to gurutva, dravatva and Sneha, making the Qualities as 20 which are most important in practical Ayurveda.

* Ayurveda Acharya Charaka added 17 gunas to gurutva, dravatva and Sneha, making the Qualities as 20 which are most important in practical Ayurveda.

=== कर्माणि॥ Karmas ===

=== कर्माणि॥ Karmas - Actions ===

Recognising Karma or action as a category of reality was a special feature of Vaisesika philosophy. Like the quality or guna, Karma or action also cannot exist on its own. It can exist only in relation to a substance or dravya. However, there is a difference, while quality is a static property of dravya, action is a dynamic property. Kanada recognised only five types of action. They are,

Recognizing [[Karma (कर्म)|Karma]] or action as a category of reality was a special feature of Vaisesika philosophy. Like the quality or guna, Karma or action also cannot exist on its own. It can exist only in relation to a substance or dravya. However, there is a difference, while quality is a static property of dravya, action is a dynamic property. '''Maharshi Kanada recognized only five types of actions.''' They are,

* उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ ।

* उत्क्षेपणमवक्षेपणं आकुञ्चनं प्रसारणं गमनमिति कर्माणि । वैशेषिक-१,१.७ । utkṣēpaṇamavakṣēpaṇaṁ ākuñcanaṁ prasāraṇaṁ gamanamiti karmāṇi | vaiśēṣika-1,1.7 |<ref name=":5" />

* Throwing upwards (utksepanam), throwing downwards (avaksepanam), contraction (akunchanam), expansion (prasaranam), and going or motion (gamanam) mean action (karmani).

* Throwing upwards (utksepanam), throwing downwards (avaksepanam), contraction (akunchanam), expansion (prasaranam), and going or motion (gamanam) mean action (karmani).

* A characteristic of Vaiśesika is the Kriya-vada or the doctrine of action. An individual is governed not only by the physical laws, but also by the moral law of Karma or action. In Kriya-vada the individual soul is active and is affected by pleasure or desire etc. They, in their transmigratory existence in a body, suffer or enjoy depending on the past impressions (activities of the past lives). In the current life, the individual is free and creator of his own destiny. His meritorious or demeritorious acts leave impression on the soul and accordingly, soul will suffer or enjoy in its next incarnation.

* A characteristic of Vaiśesika is the Kriya-vada or the doctrine of action. An individual is governed not only by the physical laws, but also by the moral law of Karma or action. In Kriya-vada the [[Jiva (जीवः)|Jiva]] or individual soul is active and is affected by pleasure or desire etc. They, in their transmigratory existence in a body, suffer or enjoy depending on the past impressions (activities of the past lives). In the current life, the individual is free and creator of his own destiny. His meritorious or demeritorious acts leave impression on the soul and accordingly, soul will suffer or enjoy in its next incarnation.<ref name=":7" />

* Based on the nature of activity, we have laukika (ordinary/daily activities) such as walking, running, talking etc., and alaukika karma (dharmik or spiritual activities) which include [[Dana (दानम्)|dana]], homa, [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajna]] etc.

=== सामान्यम् ॥ Samanya ===

=== सामान्यम् ॥ Samanya - Generality ===

* सामान्यविशेष इति बुद्ध्यपेक्षम् । वैशेषिक-१,२.३ । भावोऽनुवृत्तेरेव हेतुत्वात् सामान्यमेव । वैशेषिक-१,२.४।

* सामान्यविशेष इति बुद्ध्यपेक्षम् । वैशेषिक-१,२.३ । भावोऽनुवृत्तेरेव हेतुत्वात् सामान्यमेव । वैशेषिक-१,२.४। sāmānyaviśēṣa iti buddhyapēkṣam | vaiśēṣika-1,2.3 | bhāvō’nuvr̥ttērēva hētutvāt sāmānyamēva | vaiśēṣika-1,2.4|<ref name=":5" />

=== विशेष ॥ Visesha ===

=== विशेष ॥ Visesha - Particularity ===

* Proved by inference from above sutra 1.2.4

* Existence is a general term as it is the cause for a thing from the beginning and proved by inference from the Vaiseshika sutra 1.2.4.<ref name=":8" /> Viśesa or uniqueness is also a characteristic by which a thing can be distinguished from other things. Generality and uniqueness are conceptually opposite to each other, but both are required to identify things. Since all things exist, their existence is a general characteristic.<ref name=":7" />

=== समवायः ॥ Samavaya : ===

=== समवायः ॥ Samavaya - Inherence ===

* इहेदमिति यतः कार्यकारणयोः स समवायः । वैशेषिक-७,२.२६ ।

* इहेदमिति यतः कार्यकारणयोः स समवायः । वैशेषिक-७,२.२६ । ihēdamiti yataḥ kāryakāraṇayōḥ sa samavāyaḥ | vaiśēṣika-7,2.26 |<ref name=":5" />

The above six categories are included under Bhava Padarthas and they are positive. Abhāva (non-existence) or negation was added later as a seventh Padartha. Maharshi Kanada mentions the concept but does not define it as a separate category. According to Navya Nyaya siddhanta, Abhava is classified as Abhava Padartha and is of 4 kinds.

The above six categories are included under Bhava Padarthas and they are positive. Abhāva (non-existence) or negation was added later as a seventh Padartha. Maharshi Kanada mentions the concept but does not define it as a separate category.  

 

According to Navya Nyaya siddhanta, Abhava is classified as Abhava Padartha and is of 4 kinds.

# Pragabhava - Prior Non-existence, i.e., absence before something comes into existence

# Pragabhava - Prior Non-existence, i.e., absence before something comes into existence

Padartha refers to the fundamental categories or entities of words that convey meaning. Padartha holds a central role in Ayurveda, being considered the cause for various activities, especially in dhatusamya (maintaining the equilibrium of bodily components) and preserving health. As mentioned in Charak Samhita, Padartha serves as the foundation on which the entire rationale of Ayurvedic treatment is built and executed.<ref name=":3" />

Padartha refers to the fundamental categories or entities of words that convey meaning. Padartha holds a central role in Ayurveda, being considered the cause for various activities, especially in dhatusamya (maintaining the equilibrium of bodily components) and preserving health. As mentioned in Charak Samhita, Padartha serves as the foundation on which the entire rationale of Ayurvedic treatment is built and executed.<ref name=":3" />

Amongst the various schools of Indian Philosophies, the Vaiseshika Darshana enjoys a place of pride as it has contributed a lot to the formation and enrichment of the Ayurveda code of health maintenance and eradication of disease. The six categories of Vaisheshika termed as six causative factors in Ayurveda form the base of Ayurvedic diagnosis and treatment. The diet and medicine are categorized under the Dravya (Substance) which is the abode of the Guna (Quality/Attribute) and Karma (Action). The selection of the substances in the form of diet and medicine depends on the quality they possess. This is indeed the base of its action. The potency of a drug depends on the quality it possesses. The other three categories of the Samanya (Similitude/Generality), Vishesha (Distinctiveness/Peculiarity) and Samavaya (Inherence) helps in the choice of diet and medicine.<ref>Dadu, Vaibhav. ''Philosophical Tenets of Vaiseshika and the Fundamentals of Ayurveda.'' World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. Vol 5, 2;521-529 (2016)</ref>

Amongst the various schools of Indian Philosophies, the Vaiseshika Darshana enjoys a place of pride as it has contributed a lot to the formation and enrichment of the Ayurveda code of health maintenance and eradication of disease. The six categories of Vaisheshika termed as six causative factors in Ayurveda form the base of Ayurvedic diagnosis and treatment. The diet and medicine are categorized under the Dravya (Substance) which is the abode of the Guna (Quality/Attribute) and Karma (Action). The selection of the substances in the form of diet and medicine depends on the quality they possess. This is indeed the base of its action. The potency of a drug depends on the quality it possesses. The other three categories of the Samanya (Similitude/Generality), Vishesha (Distinctiveness/Peculiarity) and Samavaya (Inherence) helps in the choice of diet and medicine. The Samanya (Similitude/Generality) and Vishesha (Distinctiveness/Peculiarity) are the cause of increase and decrease of entities respectively. The judicious combination of the Samanya and Vishesha maintain the homogeneity of the body. Similarly in the treatment also, the depleted entities are nourished by the intake of the substances that increase the depleted while the increased entities are controlled by the use of Vishesha. The use of oil in the management of Vata is based on the concept of Vishesha as the oil is unctuous which pacifies the dry Vata. The gain in the weight of body is due to the Kapha while the loss of weight symbolizes the increase in Vata. In the case of dehydration, the lost water is replenished by the intravenous fluids which are an excellent example of the Samanya.<ref>Dadu, Vaibhav. ''Philosophical Tenets of Vaiseshika and the Fundamentals of Ayurveda.'' World Journal of Pharmaceutical Research. Vol 5, 2;521-529 (2016)</ref>

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

|+Ayurveda Padartha (Six ontological categories of an object)<ref name=":3">Devanand Upadhyay, B.K. Dwibedy. ''Padartha in Ayurveda: A comprehensive study of fundamental concepts and categories.'' Jour. of Ayurveda & Holistic Medicine, Vol.-XI, Issue-VIII (August 2023).</ref>

|+Ayurveda Padartha (Six ontological categories of an object)<ref name=":3">Devanand Upadhyay, B.K. Dwibedy. ''Padartha in Ayurveda: A comprehensive study of fundamental concepts and categories.'' Jour. of Ayurveda & Holistic Medicine, Vol.-XI, Issue-VIII (August 2023).</ref>