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Iron, called as Ayas (Samskrit: अयस्) heralded a new era in the history of mankind. Iron technology has a special place among the ancient technologies that accelerated the pace of progress and brought prosperity in society. In human history Iron Age succeeded Copper-Bronze Age as iron required a different kind of skill and a higher level of metallurgical expertise. The craftsmen who were adept in working with copper and its alloys and other glittering metals like gold, silver etc., that could be used in their native form at a much lower temperature could not smelt iron with the same technique. India has rich iron ore deposit. The ore is not only widely distributed but also easily accessible in the form of nodules scattered on the earth's surface. This must have facilitated easy hand picking of rich ore nodules by the early or primitive metal workers. However, wide distribution and easy access to the ore were insufficient to produce metallic iron and required skilled metal workers possessing sufficient metallurgical know-how. Archeological researches and archival accounts including foreign records by travelers or historians of ancient India bear that Indian iron and steel had gained significant recognition in the ancient world.<ref name=":0">Vibha Tripathi, ''Aspects of Iron Technology in India'' in Propagation, vol 3-1, 2012</ref>
== Introduction ==
The precise manner in which man discovered iron is unknown and may have been accidental. It is more likely that iron was first found in ashes of a fire set up by chance near the outcrop of an iron rich mineral. A folklore of the `Bastar tribe of central India states that their forefathers first made iron accidentally in a hollow anthill. The intentional heating of iron mineral with charcoal heralded the beginning of iron making and subsequently its fabrication into implements and weapons marks the emergence of iron age.<ref name=":1">A. K., Vaish, Biswas P. K., Goswami N. G., Krishnan C. S. S., and Ramachandra Rao P. “Historical Perspective of Iron in Ancient India.” ''Journal of Metallurgy and Materials Science'' 42, no. 1 (January 2000): 65–74.</ref>
Greek historian, Herodotus, stated in his book that Indian soldiers fought with iron-tipped arrowheads in their battles. There are records stating that swords of Indian steel were gifted as a tribute to monarchs emphasizing their valuable nature and they were exported to different parts of the ancient world.<ref name=":0" /> In India, D.K. Chakrabarti states that Iron has entered as a productive system by 800 B.C. Many areas from Central and Southern India, show evidence of Iron ore and Iron smelting indicating the earliest use of Indian iron in India. The iron and steel produced in early days was also shaped into useful articles. The primacy of iron technology in the Indian subcontinent is well established and there are several published books<ref>''Bag, A. K (1997) ed., History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.</ref><ref>Bose, D. M, et al., (1971) ed., ''A Concise History of Science in India''. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy</ref><ref>Rao, Ramachandra P. and Goswami, N.G. (2001) ''Metallurgy in India: A Retrospective'' New York: India International Publisher</ref> and articles on the state of ancient Indian iron technology. Sushruta, the medical science expert in ancient India described many surgical instruments in his book [[Sushruta Samhita (सुश्रुतसंहिता)|Sushruta Samhita]] (third or fourth century BCE).<ref>Iron and Steel Industry in Ancient India by Satyendra</ref>
== Historical evidence of Iron in Ancient India ==
The history of iron can be traced back based on the historical and archaeological sources including modern radiocarbon dating. The early hymns of Rig-Veda written about 2000 B.C., revealed the knowledge of extracting metals from ores. `AYAS' (iron) was the third Rig-Vedic metal after gold and silver. The Yajur Veda also has the mention of iron.
Rig-Vedic hymns have reference to the soldiers putting on coats of mail and using metallic helmets. Aryans deployed the use of iron in agriculture and warfare. The uses of iron extended down to southern tip of Tamil Nadu. At Pandu Rajar Dhibi in West Bengal use of iron has been traced to first millennium B.C. Based on the weapons and implements cited in Rig-Veda and the puranas, iron making technology existed to fulfill man's needs for war and peace.<ref name=":1" />
Rapid developments in iron making and its use took place around 1400 B.C. The history of early iron smelting, practiced by the tribal artisans in different regions of ancient India dates back to 1300 to 1200 B.C. The use of iron was relatively unknown except in areas where iron bearing minerals were abundant. Prakash and Tripathi<ref>Prakash, B., and Tripathi, V., (1986), ''Iron technology in ancient india,'' In Historical Metallurgy, September, pp. 568-579.</ref> have documented the early iron age cultures, which could have been independent of each other, arising in five different zones of India. These five cultures were
(i) Cairn Burial culture in northwestern India
(ii) Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture in north India
(iii) Black and Red Ware (B&RW) culture in northeast India
(iv) Megalithic culture of central India and
(v) Megalithic culture of Peninsular India.
The chalcolithic traditions, also known as the Copper Age, refers to the time period in history when people began using copper and other metals, in (a) the premature and post Harappan (b) Peninsular India and (c) Eastern India gradually gave rise to the iron age cultures in the respective areas. West Bengal and Bihar in India are endowed with high grade copper as well as iron ores and definitely constituted one of the nuclear zones for the ancient metallurgical traditions of India.<ref name=":1" />
== References ==
[[Category:Shastras]]
Iron, called as Ayas (Samskrit: अयस्) heralded a new era in the history of mankind. Iron technology has a special place among the ancient technologies that accelerated the pace of progress and brought prosperity in society. In human history Iron Age succeeded Copper-Bronze Age as iron required a different kind of skill and a higher level of metallurgical expertise. The craftsmen who were adept in working with copper and its alloys and other glittering metals like gold, silver etc., that could be used in their native form at a much lower temperature could not smelt iron with the same technique. India has rich iron ore deposit. The ore is not only widely distributed but also easily accessible in the form of nodules scattered on the earth's surface. This must have facilitated easy hand picking of rich ore nodules by the early or primitive metal workers. However, wide distribution and easy access to the ore were insufficient to produce metallic iron and required skilled metal workers possessing sufficient metallurgical know-how. Archeological researches and archival accounts including foreign records by travelers or historians of ancient India bear that Indian iron and steel had gained significant recognition in the ancient world.<ref name=":0">Vibha Tripathi, ''Aspects of Iron Technology in India'' in Propagation, vol 3-1, 2012</ref>
== Introduction ==
The precise manner in which man discovered iron is unknown and may have been accidental. It is more likely that iron was first found in ashes of a fire set up by chance near the outcrop of an iron rich mineral. A folklore of the `Bastar tribe of central India states that their forefathers first made iron accidentally in a hollow anthill. The intentional heating of iron mineral with charcoal heralded the beginning of iron making and subsequently its fabrication into implements and weapons marks the emergence of iron age.<ref name=":1">A. K., Vaish, Biswas P. K., Goswami N. G., Krishnan C. S. S., and Ramachandra Rao P. “Historical Perspective of Iron in Ancient India.” ''Journal of Metallurgy and Materials Science'' 42, no. 1 (January 2000): 65–74.</ref>
Greek historian, Herodotus, stated in his book that Indian soldiers fought with iron-tipped arrowheads in their battles. There are records stating that swords of Indian steel were gifted as a tribute to monarchs emphasizing their valuable nature and they were exported to different parts of the ancient world.<ref name=":0" /> In India, D.K. Chakrabarti states that Iron has entered as a productive system by 800 B.C. Many areas from Central and Southern India, show evidence of Iron ore and Iron smelting indicating the earliest use of Indian iron in India. The iron and steel produced in early days was also shaped into useful articles. The primacy of iron technology in the Indian subcontinent is well established and there are several published books<ref>''Bag, A. K (1997) ed., History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.</ref><ref>Bose, D. M, et al., (1971) ed., ''A Concise History of Science in India''. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy</ref><ref>Rao, Ramachandra P. and Goswami, N.G. (2001) ''Metallurgy in India: A Retrospective'' New York: India International Publisher</ref> and articles on the state of ancient Indian iron technology. Sushruta, the medical science expert in ancient India described many surgical instruments in his book [[Sushruta Samhita (सुश्रुतसंहिता)|Sushruta Samhita]] (third or fourth century BCE).<ref>Iron and Steel Industry in Ancient India by Satyendra</ref>
== Historical evidence of Iron in Ancient India ==
The history of iron can be traced back based on the historical and archaeological sources including modern radiocarbon dating. The early hymns of Rig-Veda written about 2000 B.C., revealed the knowledge of extracting metals from ores. `AYAS' (iron) was the third Rig-Vedic metal after gold and silver. The Yajur Veda also has the mention of iron.
Rig-Vedic hymns have reference to the soldiers putting on coats of mail and using metallic helmets. Aryans deployed the use of iron in agriculture and warfare. The uses of iron extended down to southern tip of Tamil Nadu. At Pandu Rajar Dhibi in West Bengal use of iron has been traced to first millennium B.C. Based on the weapons and implements cited in Rig-Veda and the puranas, iron making technology existed to fulfill man's needs for war and peace.<ref name=":1" />
Rapid developments in iron making and its use took place around 1400 B.C. The history of early iron smelting, practiced by the tribal artisans in different regions of ancient India dates back to 1300 to 1200 B.C. The use of iron was relatively unknown except in areas where iron bearing minerals were abundant. Prakash and Tripathi<ref>Prakash, B., and Tripathi, V., (1986), ''Iron technology in ancient india,'' In Historical Metallurgy, September, pp. 568-579.</ref> have documented the early iron age cultures, which could have been independent of each other, arising in five different zones of India. These five cultures were
(i) Cairn Burial culture in northwestern India
(ii) Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture in north India
(iii) Black and Red Ware (B&RW) culture in northeast India
(iv) Megalithic culture of central India and
(v) Megalithic culture of Peninsular India.
The chalcolithic traditions, also known as the Copper Age, refers to the time period in history when people began using copper and other metals, in (a) the premature and post Harappan (b) Peninsular India and (c) Eastern India gradually gave rise to the iron age cultures in the respective areas. West Bengal and Bihar in India are endowed with high grade copper as well as iron ores and definitely constituted one of the nuclear zones for the ancient metallurgical traditions of India.<ref name=":1" />
== References ==
[[Category:Shastras]]