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== Introduction ==
== Introduction ==
The precise manner in which man discovered iron is unknown and may have been accidental. It is more likely that iron was first found in ashes of a fire set up by chance near the outcrop of an iron rich mineral. A folklore of the `Bastar tribe of central India states that their forefathers first made iron accidentally in a hollow anthill. The intentional heating of iron mineral with charcoal heralded the beginning of iron making and subsequently its fabrication into implements and weapons marks the emergence of iron age.<ref name=":1">A. K., Vaish, Biswas P. K., Goswami N. G., Krishnan C. S. S., and Ramachandra Rao P. “Historical Perspective of Iron in Ancient India.” ''Journal of Metallurgy and Materials Science'' 42, no. 1 (January 2000): 65–74.</ref>
The precise manner in which man discovered iron is unknown and may have been accidental. Man must have come to know of iron through meteorites; they contain high percentage of nickel and is difficult to forge. The earliest recorded instances of the use of meteoric iron are from Egypt and Mesopotamia. It is more likely that iron was first found in ashes of a fire set up by chance near the outcrop of an iron rich mineral. A folklore of the `Bastar tribe of central India states that their forefathers first made iron accidentally in a hollow anthill. Meteoric iron did not offer scope for any techniques involved in iron working such as smelting and forging and thus may have hardly played any role in the development of Iron age. The intentional heating of iron mineral with charcoal and development of smelting process heralded the beginning of iron making and subsequently its fabrication into implements and weapons marks the emergence of iron age.<ref name=":1">A. K., Vaish, Biswas P. K., Goswami N. G., Krishnan C. S. S., and Ramachandra Rao P. “Historical Perspective of Iron in Ancient India.” ''Journal of Metallurgy and Materials Science'' 42, no. 1 (January 2000): 65–74.</ref>
Greek historian, Herodotus, stated in his book that Indian soldiers fought with iron-tipped arrowheads in their battles. There are records stating that swords of Indian steel were gifted as a tribute to monarchs emphasizing their valuable nature and they were exported to different parts of the ancient world.<ref name=":0" /> In India, D.K. Chakrabarti states that Iron has entered as a productive system by 800 B.C. Many areas from Central and Southern India, show evidence of Iron ore and Iron smelting indicating the earliest use of Indian iron in India. The iron and steel produced in early days was also shaped into useful articles. The primacy of iron technology in the Indian subcontinent is well established and there are several published books<ref>''Bag, A. K (1997) ed., History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.</ref><ref>Bose, D. M, et al., (1971) ed., ''A Concise History of Science in India''. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy</ref><ref>Rao, Ramachandra P. and Goswami, N.G. (2001) ''Metallurgy in India: A Retrospective'' New York: India International Publisher</ref> and articles on the state of ancient Indian iron technology. Sushruta, the medical science expert in ancient India described many surgical instruments in his book [[Sushruta Samhita (सुश्रुतसंहिता)|Sushruta Samhita]] (third or fourth century BCE).<ref>Iron and Steel Industry in Ancient India by Satyendra</ref>
Greek historian, Herodotus, stated in his book that Indian soldiers fought with iron-tipped arrowheads in their battles. There are records stating that swords of Indian steel were gifted as a tribute to monarchs emphasizing their valuable nature and they were exported to different parts of the ancient world.<ref name=":0" /> In India, D.K. Chakrabarti states that Iron has entered as a productive system by 800 B.C. Many areas from Central and Southern India, show evidence of Iron ore and Iron smelting indicating the earliest use of Indian iron in India. The iron and steel produced in early days was also shaped into useful articles. The primacy of iron technology in the Indian subcontinent is well established and there are several published books<ref>''Bag, A. K (1997) ed., History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D. by A. K. Bag.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy.</ref><ref>Bose, D. M, et al., (1971) ed., ''A Concise History of Science in India''. New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy</ref><ref>Rao, Ramachandra P. and Goswami, N.G. (2001) ''Metallurgy in India: A Retrospective'' New York: India International Publisher</ref> and articles on the state of ancient Indian iron technology. Sushruta, the medical science expert in ancient India described many surgical instruments in his book [[Sushruta Samhita (सुश्रुतसंहिता)|Sushruta Samhita]] (third or fourth century BCE).<ref>Iron and Steel Industry in Ancient India by Satyendra</ref>
== Historical evidence of Iron in Ancient India ==
== Historical evidence of Iron in Ancient India ==
The history of iron can be traced back based on the historical and archaeological sources including modern radiocarbon dating. The early hymns of Rig-Veda written about 2000 B.C., revealed the knowledge of extracting metals from ores. `AYAS' (iron) was the third Rig-Vedic metal after gold and silver. The Yajur Veda also has the mention of iron.
The history of iron can be traced back based on the historical and archaeological sources including modern radiocarbon dating. The early hymns of Rig-Veda written about 2000 B.C., revealed the knowledge of extracting metals from ores. 'AYAS' (iron) was the third Rig-Vedic metal after gold and silver. The Yajur Veda also has the mention of iron in the famous Rudra adhyaya. <blockquote>अश्मा च मे मृत्तिका च मे गिरयश् च मे पर्वताश् च मे सिकताश् च मे वनस्पतयश् च मे हिरण्यं च मे ऽयश् च मे श्यामं च मे लोहं च मे सीसं च मे त्रपु च मे यज्ञेन कल्पन्ताम् ॥ (Yaju. Samh. )<ref>[https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%AE Shukla Yajurveda] </ref>
Rig-Vedic hymns have reference to the soldiers putting on coats of mail and using metallic helmets. Aryans deployed the use of iron in agriculture and warfare. The uses of iron extended down to southern tip of Tamil Nadu. At Pandu Rajar Dhibi in West Bengal use of iron has been traced to first millennium B.C. Based on the weapons and implements cited in Rig-Veda and the puranas, iron making technology existed to fulfill man's needs for war and peace.<ref name=":1" />
aśmā ca me mṛttikā ca me girayaś ca me parvatāś ca me sikatāś ca me vanaspatayaś ca me hiraṇyaṃ ca me ’yaś ca me śyāmaṃ ca me lohaṃ ca me sīsaṃ ca me trapu ca me yajñena kalpantām || </blockquote>Rig-Vedic hymns have reference to the soldiers putting on '''coats of mail''' (a jacket covered with or composed of metal rings or plates, serving as armour) and using '''metallic helmets'''. Ancient Indians deployed the use of iron in '''agriculture and warfare'''. The uses of iron extended down to southern tip of Tamil Nadu. Based on the weapons and implements cited in Rig-Veda and the puranas, iron making technology existed to fulfill man's needs for war and peace.<ref name=":1" />
Rapid developments in iron making and its use took place around 1400 B.C. The history of early iron smelting, practiced by the tribal artisans in different regions of ancient India dates back to 1300 to 1200 B.C. The use of iron was relatively unknown except in areas where iron bearing minerals were abundant. Prakash and Tripathi<ref>Prakash, B., and Tripathi, V., (1986), ''Iron technology in ancient india,'' In Historical Metallurgy, September, pp. 568-579.</ref> have documented the early iron age cultures, which could have been independent of each other, arising in five different zones of India. These five cultures were
Rapid developments in iron making and its use took place around 1400 B.C. The history of early iron smelting, practiced by the tribal artisans in different regions of ancient India dates back to 1300 to 1200 B.C. The use of iron was relatively unknown except in areas where iron bearing minerals were abundant. Prakash and Tripathi<ref>Prakash, B., and Tripathi, V., (1986), ''Iron technology in ancient india,'' In Historical Metallurgy, September, pp. 568-579.</ref> have documented the early iron age cultures, which could have been independent of each other, arising in five different zones of India. These five cultures were
[[File:Iron Smelting Furnace.PNG|thumb|Megalithic iron smelting furnace at Naikund (near Nagpur, Maharashtra)]]
(i) Cairn Burial culture in northwestern India
(i) Cairn Burial culture in northwestern India
(v) Megalithic culture of Peninsular India.
(v) Megalithic culture of Peninsular India.
The chalcolithic traditions, also known as the Copper Age, refers to the time period in history when people began using copper and other metals, in (a) the premature and post Harappan (b) Peninsular India and (c) Eastern India gradually gave rise to the iron age cultures in the respective areas. West Bengal and Bihar in India are endowed with high grade copper as well as iron ores and definitely constituted one of the nuclear zones for the ancient metallurgical traditions of India.<ref name=":1" />
The chalcolithic traditions, also known as the Copper Age, refers to the time period in history when people began using copper and other metals, in (a) the premature and post Harappan (b) Peninsular India and (c) Eastern India gradually gave rise to the iron age cultures in the respective areas. West Bengal and Bihar in India are endowed with high grade copper as well as iron ores and definitely constituted one of the nuclear zones for the ancient metallurgical traditions of India. South India evolved mega (big) lithic (stone) culture in which the burials were surrounded by a circle of stone boulders. This culture extending gradually to the central India and even trans—Vindhyan areas, exhibited early traditions of the use of iron. The earliest phase of the Iron Age in the south has been revealed in the excavation at sites in Karnataka. Thus the traditions of Iron age evolved over centuries across a large section of the subcontinent, starting in southern most India. The dates of the earliest iron age sites in India show that the discovery and use of iron started around 1200 B.C. indigenously and independently in at least three nuclear zones—'''Karnataka area in the south, U.P.—Rajasthan area in the north and West Bengal—Bihar area in the northeast'''.<ref name=":1" />
=== Archeological Excavations ===
[[File:Table of Iron Tools and Implements.png|right|frameless|519x519px]]
The following are a few iron artifacts excavated and investigated in Indian Archeological sites.<ref name=":1" />
* A large number of '''iron implements''' have been unearthed at Adittanallur, Tamilnadu at a burial site which is dated to around 250 B.C. A table of various iron tools and implements appearing at the three stages of iron technology in ancient India has been provided below.
* '''Iron implements''' comprising of agricultural implements, blacksmith tools etc., have been unearthed at Taxila (3-5 B.C.) Besides numerous ingots of iron, iron spearheads, spikes and nails belonging to the second century A.D. have been found in UP, near Basti and Kapilvastu.
* The great battle of `Kurukshetra' was fought (probably around ninth century B.C.) which witnessed the extensive use of '''iron weapons and armour'''.
* Sushruta, the great surgeon of ancient India indicated that even in the early period, Hindus had learnt the art of manipulating the '''lancet''' and handled the '''simple surgical instruments made of iron and steel'''.
* At Pandu Rajar Dhibi in West Bengal use of iron has been traced to first millennium B.C.
* Matured iron age had existed around 8th century B.C. in '''Pandu Rajar Dhibi in West Bengal'''. The hardening and quenching methods were observed in a third century B.C. '''sickle''', which is so far one of the earliest Indian specimens exhibiting the steeling process. The length of the sickle was 255 mm and the maximum width 22 mm. The internal curved region of the agricultural tool had a sharp cutting edge. The chemical analysis revealed that it was low carbon steel-carbon 0.22%, copper 0.15%, nickel 0.13%, cobalt 0.11%, rest iron.
* A second century B.C. sample of '''iron razor''' from Ror, district '''Kangra''', Himachal Pradesh, showed, apart from massive ferrite, martensite plates indicated the technique of rapid quenching.
* The excavations at Bodh Gaya monastery built by Ashoka in third century B.C., have brought to light the '''iron clamps.'''
* Alexander defeated '''Porus of Taxila''' in 326 B.C. and received from him a gift of '''100 talents of steel'''.
* Excavations at the Garh Kalika mound on the outskirts of '''Ujjain''' revealed that iron was known to its ancient dwellers from the earliest period.
* Iron articles such as '''spikes, nails and piece'''s have been unearthed in the monastery at '''Piprahwa''', about 20 km from the ruins at Kapilvastu ('''near Nepal border''').
* [[File:Delhi Iron Pillar.png|right|frameless|400x400px|The famous pillar at Mehrauli, near Kutub Minar in Delhi shows that Megalithic Iron-smiths evolved the technique of forging]]The '''famous pillar at Mehrauli, near Kutub Minar''' in Delhi (more than 7 meters in height and about 7 tonnes in weight) was originally erected at Mathura and later on re-erected at Delhi. It shows that Megalithic iron smiths had evolved the technique of forging small blooms into huge iron piece.
* The '''Dhar pillar''' is dated to 12th century A.D. It was intact till 1304 A.D. and then broken into three pieces. Its height was more than the double of Delhi pillar.
* The '''pillar''' '''at Mount Abu''' stands at the temple of Achaleswar, which was built in 1412 A.D. It has a trident on its top.
* The famous sun temple at '''Konark in Orissa has''' '''wrought iron beams'''. They are dated to 13th century A.D. Several iron beams have been used in the ancient temple of Konark in Orissa which was built in the 9th century.
* In the J'''agannath temple of Puri''' in Orissa, built in the 12th century A.D. '''239 iron beams''' have been used.
* The '''iron trident in Tanginath temple''' belongs to 12th century A.D.
* Babar used guns in first battle of Panipath in 1526 A.D. Guns were introduced in southern India by the Portuguese. Most Mughal guns were generally constructed of iron bars of square section.
*
== Quality of Iron in Ancient India ==
The iron produced in the indigenous furnaces was wrought iron. It contained low percent-age of carbon due the lower absorption of carbon in ancient iron making furnaces. Steel was produced by carburization of wrought iron during this period. It is said that India is the first producer of carbon steel (wootz). In fact, India was considered to be the centre of origin of iron and steel industry in the world. It is possible that iron age in India had started about 3000 years before the industry started in European countries. The '''Damascus swords''' which became famous in Europe were made from Indian wootz. In those days, Hyderabad and Madras in South India were the centres of production of wootz. The process of wootz making was specially popular in the districts of Salem and Tiruchirappalli in Madras, besides the Hyderabad area, in Andhra Pradesh and Mysore. The ancient Indian steel was highly priced in world market. The possibility of a country wide manufacture of iron existing from quite early times, is also indicated by the references to the working of iron mines in Bajuha, Subha Bengal, Keroh, Subha Kashmir, Kumaon, Khasi Hills, Subha Delhi, besides at Nirmal and Indore in Ain-i-Akbari.
== References ==
== References ==
[[Category:Shastras]]
[[Category:Shastras]]