Changes

*# Jahadajahallakshana, a part of the primary meaning is retained, e.g., 'this is that man' - meaning the identity of the man leaving out the attributes of 'this' and 'that'.

*# Jahadajahallakshana, a part of the primary meaning is retained, e.g., 'this is that man' - meaning the identity of the man leaving out the attributes of 'this' and 'that'.

* '''Vyanjana''' : This stands for such meanings of words which are neither directly or indirectly related to them, but are only suggested by them. Thus the sentence गङ्गायां घोषः । the house is ''on Ganga'' is taken to mean that the house has the suggested qualities of Coolness (शीतलत्वम्) and Sacredness (पावनत्वम्) that is associated with the river Ganga.  

* '''Vyanjana''' : This stands for such meanings of words which are neither directly or indirectly related to them, but are only suggested by them. Thus the sentence गङ्गायां घोषः । the house is ''on Ganga'' is taken to mean that the house has the suggested qualities of Coolness (शीतलत्वम्) and Sacredness (पावनत्वम्) that is associated with the river Ganga.  

Naiyayikas admit only Sanketa and Lakshana kinds of meanings of words, they include Vyanjana within Sakti and Lakshana. They also different from Vedantins who admit that not only words, sentences also may have secondary meanings or Lakshana. The Alamkarikas consider the third kind of meaning namely Vyanjana. The Vyangyartha or suggested meaning of a word arises from its primary and secondary meanings and is not separate from them according to Naiyayikas. The alamkarikas however differ from Naiyayika views. Thus we have four kinds of terms namely

Naiyayikas admit only Sanketa and Lakshana kinds of meanings of words, they include Vyanjana within Sakti and Lakshana. They are also different from Vedantins who admit that not only words, sentences also may have secondary meanings or Lakshana. The Alamkarikas consider the third kind of meaning namely Vyanjana. The Vyangyartha or suggested meaning of a word arises from its primary and secondary meanings and is not separate from them according to Naiyayikas. The alamkarikas however differ from Naiyayika views. Thus we have four kinds of terms namely

* Abhidhaa/Vachaka/Mukhyartha/Sakyartha denotes the primary meaning of a word

* Abhidhaa/Vachaka/Mukhyartha/Sakyartha denotes the primary meaning of a word

* Paaribhaashika padas denoting the technical meaning of a word

* Paaribhaashika padas denoting the technical meaning of a word

# धातुप्रकृतिप्रत्ययादीनां शक्तिग्रहो व्याकरणाद्भवति। From the vyakarana aspects such as Dhatu (verbal roots), Prakrti and Pratyaya (suffixes) the meaning of the word is apprehended.   

# धातुप्रकृतिप्रत्ययादीनां शक्तिग्रहो व्याकरणाद्भवति। From the vyakarana aspects such as Dhatu (verbal roots), Prakrti and Pratyaya (suffixes) the meaning of the word is apprehended.   

# उपमानाद्यथा शक्तिग्रहः..। Through comparisons (upamanas) the meaning of the word is apprehended.   

# उपमानाद्यथा शक्तिग्रहः..। Through comparisons (upamanas) the meaning of the word is apprehended.   

# कोषाद् । Through Dictionaries the meaning of the words are learnt.   

# कोशद् । Through Dictionaries the meaning of the words are learnt.   

# आप्तवाक्याद् । From the different usages of words by trustworthy persons, as from the statement such as यथा कोकिल: पिकशब्दवाच्य इत्यादिशब्दात् । the word 'pika' signifies a cuckoo.   

# आप्तवाक्याद् । From the different usages of words by trustworthy persons, as from the statement such as यथा कोकिल: पिकशब्दवाच्य इत्यादिशब्दात् । the word 'pika' signifies a cuckoo.   

# व्यवहारादपि। From the usage also the meaning is apprehended. For instance, an elderly person giving directions says, 'bring the jar,' and hearing this another person brings a jar. A boy watching this concludes that the act of bringing a jar is the result of the words uttered by the elderly person. From the expressions such as, 'remove the jar,' and 'bring the cow,' he understands the process of inclusion and exclusion of functions.   

# व्यवहारादपि। From the usage also the meaning is apprehended. For instance, an elderly person giving directions says, 'bring the jar,' and hearing this another person brings a jar. A boy watching this concludes that the act of bringing a jar is the result of the words uttered by the elderly person. From the expressions such as, 'remove the jar,' and 'bring the cow,' he understands the process of inclusion and exclusion of functions.   

A word is called derivatively conventional '''(योगरूढम् । yogarūḍham)''' when its meaning is determined by component parts or avayavas having the aspect of collective denotation (अवयवशक्तिविषये समुदायशक्तिरप्यस्ति). Example, words such as पङ्कजा (lotus) where by avayava sakti it reflects something that grows in the mud and by samudaya sakti it conveys the idea of flower named lotus by implication. Further detailed explanation is not presented here due to the extensiveness of the subject.

A word is called derivatively conventional '''(योगरूढम् । yogarūḍham)''' when its meaning is determined by component parts or avayavas having the aspect of collective denotation (अवयवशक्तिविषये समुदायशक्तिरप्यस्ति). Example, words such as पङ्कजा (lotus) where by avayava sakti it reflects something that grows in the mud and by samudaya sakti it conveys the idea of flower named lotus by implication. Further detailed explanation is not presented here due to the extensiveness of the subject.

A word is called derivative and conventional '''(यौगिकरूढम् । yaugikarūḍham)''' when its meaning is determined independent of each other, by both Yaugika and Rudha meanings (यौगिकार्थरूढ्यर्थयो: स्वातन्त्र्येण बोध:). Example, the words such as उद्भिदा । Udbhida It denotes that which sprouts such as the trees and shrubs, as also a particular kind of yaga.<ref name=":2" />   

A word is called derivative and conventional '''(यौगिकरूढम् । yaugikarūḍham)''' when its meaning is determined independent of each other, by both Yaugika and Rudha meanings (यौगिकार्थरूढ्यर्थयो: स्वातन्त्र्येण बोध:). Example, the words such as उद्भिदा । Udbhida It denotes that which sprouts such as the trees and shrubs, as also a particular kind of yaaga.<ref name=":2" />   

== The Import of Words ==

== The Import of Words ==

What is the primary meaning of a word? Does it mean an individual (vyakti) or a particular form (akrti) or a universal class (jaati)?

There is a great divergence among the various schools of thought regarding the locus of Shakti. What does a word denote? Is it a particular form (akrti) or a universal class (jaati)? There are four important views about this subject tabularised below<ref name=":3">Iyer, S. R. (1979) ''Tarkabhasa of Kesava Misra, Edited with Translation, Notes, and an Introduction in English.'' Varanasi: Chaukhambha Orientalia (Pages 130-133)</ref>

|an individual (vyakti) animal or thing

|universal notion underlying all animals or things of that class

Each of these schools look at the denotative force of a word from a different angle and each would appear to be correct in its own way.

 

For example when घटमानय is being uttered the intention is that the particular entity jar (घटव्यक्तिः) is to be brought and not the class (जातिः) of jars (घटत्वम्) as the capacity for being acted upon (अर्थक्रियाकारित्वम्) exists only in the व्यक्तिः। On observing this action, a person who does not know what a घट denotes previously assumes that - that word represents such a thing. This assumption is confirmed when he next observes the jar being removed. From this it must be admitted that the denotation of the word घट is primarily ascertained in the घटव्यक्तिः as otherwise the hearer would not bring or remove the particular object. But then it may be argued that शक्तिः is grasped only on one particular व्यक्तिः and there are innumerable घटव्यक्ति-s in which शक्तिः is not grasped. This objection would appear to be valid on the face of it; but is contrary to ordinary experience. When one has ascertained शक्तिः on a particular घटव्यक्तिः he sizes up the general shape and form of a घट as a कम्बुग्रीवादिमद्वस्तुः and through it he conceives the general notion, the घटत्वम् underlying all such jars. In fact घटत्वम् is nothing but कम्बुग्रीवादिमत्वम् showing all the elements that constitute the shape of the object, such as a narrow neck, bulging belly, rounded bottom, etc. घटत्वम् is the abstract formless notion while कम्बुग्रीवादिमत्वम् is the same notion in concrete form which is called आकृतिविशेषः। It is this आकृतिविशेषः which enables one to distinguish it from other things—अतद्व्यावृत्तिः। If one has understood what is meant by the word घट, or in other words, if one has grasped the denotative force of घट, it means that he has a definite conception of

In his Nyayasutras, Gautama wants to convey in जात्याकृतिव्यक्तयस्तु पदार्थः (1-2-64) sutra that the meaning of a word rests on all the three, जातिः, आकृतिः and व्यक्तिः. The three notions जातिः, आकृतिः and व्यक्तिः are but different phases of one and the same thing serving distinct functions in logical explanation and as such inseparable from one another.<ref name=":3" />

 

The Vaiyaakaranas emphasize that the denotative force acts primarily on the जातिः as that is the life-giving element in any substance, प्राणप्रद. The conception of the व्यक्तिः is by a later mental process such as Anumana, Arthapatti or even by Vyajnana (suggestion). As the visual sense organ is in direct contact only with the व्यक्तिः and as अर्थक्रियाकारित्वम् rests on it, it is only the व्यक्तिः that can be brought when some one says घटमानय. It may be noted that Mimamsakas, Advaitins, and the Alamkarikas accept this siddhanta, and embellish it further, even though they do not accept the Sphotavada of Vaiyakaranas.

 

The Buddhists who want to refute both the Mimamasaka and the Naiyayika at the same time strike a new path and contend that the primary import of words is अपोह or अतद्व्यावृत्तिः i.e. differentia from all things other than that. In other words, the word घट primarily denotes a thing different from non-jar things and the जातिः and व्यक्तिः are only aids for this differentia.

 

The difference between denotation and connotation on which great emphasis is laid by Western logicians, does not find a place in any of the above views. If we may use these two words in their most general meaning, it may be said in general that the अभिधा (or शक्तिः) of the Naiyayikas comprises both these notions, जातिः corresponding to the connoted attribute and व्यक्तिः to the denoted object as qualified by the जातिः।<ref name=":3" />

== References ==

== References ==

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