Changes

Farming first requires fertile soil. Cultivation areas in different phases of history are thus traced to fertile soils like, mountain clay, alluvial soils of river plain and black cotton soils found in different geographical areas of India. The concept of rivers and their soils supporting agriculture is not unknown.  

Farming first requires fertile soil. Cultivation areas in different phases of history are thus traced to fertile soils like, mountain clay, alluvial soils of river plain and black cotton soils found in different geographical areas of India. The concept of rivers and their soils supporting agriculture is not unknown.  

The fertile lower basins of the Saptasindhu, seven rivers, of Punjab were highly esteemed for bounteous crops.<blockquote>तस्येदिमे प्रवणे सप्त सिन्धवो वयो वर्धन्ति वृषभस्य शुष्मिणः ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.43.3)</blockquote>River sides were considered fertile. It is well known that the vast tracts of land irrigated by the rivers such as Ganga in the northern plains and Godavari and Krishna in the southern part of the Indian peninsula are dotted with human settlements dating far back into time. People are stated to have selected their routes of journey by the river-sides. The Rigveda recognizes two types of land. These are fertile or apnasvati and arid or aartana.<blockquote>स हि शर्धो न मारुतं तुविष्वणिरप्नस्वतीषू॒र्वरास्विष्टनिरार्तनास्विष्टनि: । (Rig. Veda. 1.127.6)</blockquote>The former is marshy or riverine tract, known as anupa and the latter, arid, known as jangala. Usara (alkaline) and anusara (non-alkaline, i.e., cultivable land) are the two divisions of land found in the Sutra literature. Land was alternatively used as arable land called Kshetra (cultivated) and as fallow called as Khila or Khilya (tilled but uncultivated for some time) to maintain the soil's potentiality. Fallow land had different functions: pasture ground and ground for cowshed. Both the practices contributed natural fertilization of the soil by cow droppings.<ref name=":3" />

The fertile lower basins of the Saptasindhu, seven rivers, of Punjab were highly esteemed for bounteous crops.<blockquote>तस्येदिमे प्रवणे सप्त सिन्धवो वयो वर्धन्ति वृषभस्य शुष्मिणः ॥३॥ (Rig. Veda. 10.43.3)</blockquote>River sides were considered fertile. It is well known that the vast tracts of land irrigated by the rivers such as Ganga in the northern plains and Godavari and Krishna in the southern part of the Indian peninsula are dotted with human settlements dating far back into time. People are stated to have selected their routes of journey by the river-sides.  

 

 

The Rigveda recognizes two types of land. These are fertile or apnasvati and arid or aartana.<blockquote>स हि शर्धो न मारुतं तुविष्वणिरप्नस्वतीषू॒र्वरास्विष्टनिरार्तनास्विष्टनि: । (Rig. Veda. 1.127.6)</blockquote>The former is marshy or riverine tract, known as anupa and the latter, arid, known as jangala. Usara (alkaline) and anusara (non-alkaline, i.e., cultivable land) are the two divisions of land found in the Sutra literature. Land was alternatively used as arable land called Kshetra (cultivated) and as fallow called as Khila or Khilya (tilled but uncultivated for some time) to maintain the soil's potentiality. Fallow land had different functions: pasture ground and ground for cowshed. Both the practices contributed natural fertilization of the soil by cow droppings.<ref name=":3" />

Vrkshayurveda of Surapala has a separate section on bhuminirupana or determining the ground. There are other classifications based on color (varna) and taste (rasa) of the soil.  

Vrkshayurveda of Surapala has a separate section on bhuminirupana or determining the ground. There are other classifications based on color (varna) and taste (rasa) of the soil.  

The Arthashastra (2.24.22) says that a region where the foam strikes (river bank) (phenaaghaata) is suited for creeper fruits; regions on the outskirts of overflows (parivahanta) for long pepper, grapes and sugarcanes; those on the borders of wells (kupaparyanta) for vegetables and roots; those on the borders of moist beds of lakes (haraniparyanta) for green grasses; and ridges (paalya) for plants reaped by cutting, such as perfume plants, medicinal herbs, usihira grass and others.

The Arthashastra (2.24.22) says that a region where the foam strikes (river bank) (phenaaghaata) is suited for creeper fruits; regions on the outskirts of overflows (parivahanta) for long pepper, grapes and sugarcanes; those on the borders of wells (kupaparyanta) for vegetables and roots; those on the borders of moist beds of lakes (haraniparyanta) for green grasses; and ridges (paalya) for plants reaped by cutting, such as perfume plants, medicinal herbs, usihira grass and others.

The above discussion clearly shows that observations of the natural phenomenon by the farmer are far more holistic in determining the nature of the soil to arrive at an appropriate crop to be sown.  

 

The above discussion clearly shows that observations of the natural phenomenon by the farmer are far more holistic in determining the nature of the soil to arrive at an appropriate crop to be sown.

=== कृषिः ॥ Tillage ===

=== कृषिः ॥ Tillage ===

The most important of the agricultural tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.     

The most important of the agricultural tools being the plough, is referred to as Langala and Sira in ancient texts. It was made of hard wood like Khadira and Udumhara. Sira (plough) was attached Isa (pole) with a yuga (yoke) attached at its upper side.     

Ploughing was regarded as an important process in cultivation. lt is observed in the Satapatha Brahmana (8.2.2.5) that furrow is like the womb in which  seeds are sown and casting seeds into unploughed field is like sowing seeds into any place other than the womb.<ref name=":1">Bag, A. K. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Pages 391 - )</ref><blockquote>प्रजापतेर्विस्रस्तात्सर्वाः प्रजा मध्यत उदक्रामन्नेतस्या अधि योनेस्ता एनमेतस्मिन्नात्मनः प्रतिहिते प्रापद्यन्त - ८.२.२.[५] (Shat. Brah. 8.2.2.5)<ref>Shatapata Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Kanda 8 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>The Krshiparasara attaches great importance to ploughing. It raises the act to an auspicious rite, designated as '''halaprasaarana (हलप्रसारणम्''' '''। commencement of ploughing)''' which is necessary for the success of cultivation.<blockquote>हलप्रसारणं येन न कृतं मृगकुम्भयोः । कुतस्तस्य कृषाणस्य प्हलाशा कृषिकर्मणि ॥ (१५२) (Kris. Para. 152)<ref name=":4">Krshi Parashara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D?wprov=srpw1_0 Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Further it describes the nakshatras, the days of the week and lagna signs (astrological details) when this important process should be carried out.  

Ploughing was regarded as an important process in cultivation. lt is observed in the Satapatha Brahmana (8.2.2.5) that furrow is like the womb in which  seeds are sown and casting seeds into unploughed field is like sowing seeds into any place other than the womb.<ref name=":1">Bag, A. K. (1997) ''History of Technology in India, Vol. 1, From Antiquity to c. 1200 A.D.'' New Delhi: Indian National Science Academy. (Pages 391 - 416)</ref><blockquote>प्रजापतेर्विस्रस्तात्सर्वाः प्रजा मध्यत उदक्रामन्नेतस्या अधि योनेस्ता एनमेतस्मिन्नात्मनः प्रतिहिते प्रापद्यन्त - ८.२.२.[५] (Shat. Brah. 8.2.2.5)<ref>Shatapata Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AE/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A Kanda 8 Adhyaya 2])</ref></blockquote>The Krshiparasara attaches great importance to ploughing. It raises the act to an auspicious rite, designated as '''halaprasaarana (हलप्रसारणम्''' '''। commencement of ploughing)''' which is necessary for the success of cultivation.<blockquote>हलप्रसारणं येन न कृतं मृगकुम्भयोः । कुतस्तस्य कृषाणस्य प्हलाशा कृषिकर्मणि ॥ (१५२) (Kris. Para. 152)<ref name=":4">Krshi Parashara ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D?wprov=srpw1_0 Full Text])</ref></blockquote>Further it describes the nakshatras, the days of the week and lagna signs (astrological details) when this important process should be carried out.  

A few points about ploughing as recognized by ancient farmers are as follows.  

A few points about ploughing as recognized by ancient farmers are as follows.  

* '''Knowledge of kinds of plants''': Plants (called as padapa, because they "drink" through their roots) in general, include big trees (vanaspati), trees (druma), creepers (lata) and thickets (gulma)

* '''Knowledge of kinds of plants''': Plants (called as padapa, because they "drink" through their roots) in general, include big trees (vanaspati), trees (druma), creepers (lata) and thickets (gulma)

* '''Three ways of propagation''' namely, by seeds (Bija), scion of a plant (Kaanda) and bulbous root (kanda). Vrkshayurveda by Surapala lists different groups of plants that grow from seeds and scions, from bulbous roots, and from both seeds and bulbous roots (verses 45-51).

* '''Three ways of propagation''' namely, by seeds (Bija), scion of a plant (Kaanda) and bulbous root (kanda). Vrkshayurveda by Surapala lists different groups of plants that grow from seeds and scions, from bulbous roots, and from both seeds and bulbous roots (verses 45-51).

* '''Knowledge about seeds''' has two main parts - the selection of good seeds and sowing them in an appropriate manner mentioned in Milindapanho text. It was a recognized fact that all seeds do not germinate, and that infertility is due to seed defects. Parching of seeds (Mahabharata 12.320.33), excessive underground heat (Mahabharata 12.181.7), dehusked seeds (Mahabharata 2.77.13) were unproductive.

* '''Knowledge about seed fertility''' has two main parts - the selection of good seeds and sowing them in an appropriate manner mentioned in Milindapanho text. It was a recognized fact that all seeds do not germinate, and that infertility is due to seed defects. Parching of seeds (Mahabharata 12.320.33), excessive underground heat (Mahabharata 12.181.7), dehusked seeds (Mahabharata 2.77.13) were unproductive.

* '''Government intervention''' is needed for seed/root collection; a Sitadhyaksha  (agricultural officer) is required to collect, in proper seasons, all kinds of grains, flowers, fruits, vegetables, bulbous roots, roots, creeper fruits, flax and cotton. (Kautilya Arthashastra 2.24.1)

* '''Government intervention''' is needed for seed/root collection; a Sitadhyaksha  (agricultural officer) is required to collect, in proper seasons, all kinds of grains, flowers, fruits, vegetables, bulbous roots, roots, creeper fruits, flax and cotton. (Kautilya Arthashastra 2.24.1)

* '''Seed processing''' was well described in Krshi parasara (157-167)<ref name=":4" />. Seeds are to be collected in appropriate season, dried in sun, separated from the chaff, collection of uniform seeds, stored in grass packages, and preserved in safe locations far from anthills, lamps, fire or smoke etc.

* '''Seed processing''' was well described in Krshi parasara (157-167)<ref name=":4" />. Seeds are to be collected in appropriate season, dried in sun, separated from the chaff, collection of uniform seeds, stored in grass packages, and preserved in safe locations far from anthills, lamps, fire or smoke etc.

* '''Physical methods''' like driving away the pest-bird by din and noise - The Rigveda (10.68.1) thus describes, “उदप्रुतो न वयो रक्षमाणा वावदतो अभ्रियस्येव घोषा: । Like the farmers make noise to drive away the birds from fields”.  

* '''Physical methods''' like driving away the pest-bird by din and noise - The Rigveda (10.68.1) thus describes, “उदप्रुतो न वयो रक्षमाणा वावदतो अभ्रियस्येव घोषा: । Like the farmers make noise to drive away the birds from fields”.  

* '''Scarecrows''' - by fixing poles of various designs, was resorted to in order to scare away mischievous birds and beasts.  

* '''Scarecrows''' - by fixing poles of various designs, was resorted to in order to scare away mischievous birds and beasts.  

* '''Control by rotation of crops'''. The Taittiriya Samhita refers to rotation of crops. Obviously that practice also afforded natural prevention of crops from incest-pest.<ref name=":3" />

* '''Control by rotation of crops'''. The Taittiriya Samhita refers to rotation of crops. This practice also afforded natural prevention of incest-pest in crops.<ref name=":3" />

*'''Cures for Tridosha of trees''': The Vrkshayurveda text prescribes cures for trees suffering from the disorders of wind, phlegm and bile (184-92). It gives detailed advice about the treatment of trees infested with insects (193-98). or destroying insects the text recommends administering of water containing milk, carcass water (kunapa), Bhillota, Vaca and cowdung etc.

*'''Cures for Tridosha of trees''': The Vrkshayurveda text prescribes cures for trees suffering from the disorders of wind, phlegm and bile (184-92). It gives detailed advice about the treatment of trees infested with insects (193-98). or destroying insects the text recommends administering of water containing milk, carcass water (kunapa), Bhillota, Vaca and cowdung etc.

*'''Cure for Injuries to trees''': A worm-eaten plant is to be irrigated with a solution of oil-cake in water. Insects on leaves are destroyed by dusting them with ashes and brick-dust. Injury caused by insects is healed by a plastering of Jantughna, sesamum, cow’s urine, ghee and Siddhartha and by watering with milk.

*'''Cure for Injuries to trees''': A worm-eaten plant is to be irrigated with a solution of oil-cake in water. Insects on leaves are destroyed by dusting them with ashes and brick-dust. Injury caused by insects is healed by a plastering of Jantughna, sesamum, cow’s urine, ghee and Siddhartha and by watering with milk.

*'''Pesticides use''' - It was limited and plants be systematically sprinkled with ash-dust and lime-water to remove the damage caused by vermins.<ref name=":1" />

*'''Pesticides use''' - It was limited and plants be systematically sprinkled with ash-dust and lime-water to remove the damage caused by vermins.<ref name=":1" />

== Agricultural implements ==

== Agricultural implements ==

All the agricultural operations were carried out by implements suited to them. The artefacts and innovations were moulded according to the nature of soil, dimension of cultivable field and above all techniques involved in particular operation. Vedic implements show four types of implements. These are:  

All the agricultural operations were carried out by implements suited to them. The artefacts and innovations were moulded according to the nature of soil, dimension of cultivable field and above all techniques involved in particular operation. Vedic implements show four types of implements. These are: