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== षोडशपदार्थाः ॥ Sixteen Categories ==

== षोडशपदार्थाः ॥ Sixteen Categories ==

Nyaya expounds the shodasha padarthas or sixteen entities, the knowledge of the real essence (or true character) of which leads one to the ultimate goal. <blockquote>प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानां तत्वज्ञानान्निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ॥१॥ {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.1)<ref name=":4">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref></blockquote>They are as discussed as follows with reference to pages 22-30 of Mm. Sri. Ganganatha Jha's translation<ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) Gautama's Nyayasutras With Vatsyayana Bhashya. Poona : Oriental Book Agency. ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Page no 20])</ref> and pages 294-296 of Dr. Surendranath Dasgupta's books on Indian Philosophy (Volume 1)<ref name=":12">Dasgupta, Surendranath. (7th Reprint : 2012) A History of Indian Philosophy. Volume 1. New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>.

Nyaya expounds the shodasha padarthas or sixteen entities, the knowledge of the real essence (or true character) of which leads one to the ultimate goal. <blockquote>प्रमाणप्रमेयसंशयप्रयोजनदृष्टान्तसिद्धान्तावयवतर्कनिर्णयवादजल्पवितण्डाहेत्वाभासच्छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानानां तत्वज्ञानान्निःश्रेयसाधिगमः ॥१॥ {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.1)<ref name=":4">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 1])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>pramāṇapramēyasaṁśayaprayōjanadr̥ṣṭāntasiddhāntāvayavatarkanirṇayavādajalpavitaṇḍāhētvābhāsacchalajātinigrahasthānānāṁ tatvajñānānniḥśrēyasādhigamaḥ ॥1॥ {padārthōddēśasūtram} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.1)</blockquote>They are as discussed as follows with reference to pages 22-30 of Mm. Sri. Ganganatha Jha's translation<ref name=":6">Mm. Ganganatha Jha. (1939) Gautama's Nyayasutras With Vatsyayana Bhashya. Poona : Oriental Book Agency. ([https://archive.org/details/GautamasNyayasutras/page/n20 Page no 20])</ref> and pages 294-296 of Dr. Surendranath Dasgupta's books on Indian Philosophy (Volume 1)<ref name=":12">Dasgupta, Surendranath. (7th Reprint : 2012) A History of Indian Philosophy. Volume 1. New Delhi : Motilal Banarsidass Publishers Pvt. Ltd.</ref>.

; 1. '''प्रमाणम् ॥ Pramana (Perception)''' : It is the instrument of right cognition. Four pramanas accepted by Nyaya are Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana and Shabda given by sutra  

; 1. '''प्रमाणम् ॥ Pramana (Perception)''' : It is the instrument of right cognition. Four pramanas accepted by Nyaya are Pratyaksha, Anumana, Upamana and Shabda given by sutra  

<blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ॥ ३ ॥ {प्रमाणौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>

<blockquote>प्रत्यक्षानुमानोपमानशब्दाः प्रमाणानि ॥ ३ ॥ {प्रमाणौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>pratyakṣānumānōpamānaśabdāḥ pramāṇāni ॥ 3 ॥ {pramāṇauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.3)</blockquote>

; 2. '''प्रमेयम् ॥ Prameya (Object)''': It is the object identified by right cognition. Nyaya enlists 12 kinds of prameya given in sutra   

; 2. '''प्रमेयम् ॥ Prameya (Object)''': It is the object identified by right cognition. Nyaya enlists 12 kinds of prameya given in sutra   

<blockquote>आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम्॥ ९ ॥{प्रमेयौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.9)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>Both Pramana and Prameya have been extensively discussed under the heading [[Pramana (प्रमाणम्)|Pramana]].

<blockquote>आत्मशरीरेन्द्रियार्थबुद्धिमनःप्रवृत्तिदोषप्रेत्यभावफलदुःखापवर्गाः तु प्रमेयम्॥ ९ ॥{प्रमेयौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.9)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>ātmaśarīrēndriyārthabuddhimanaḥpravr̥ttidōṣaprētyabhāvaphaladuḥkhāpavargāḥ tu pramēyam॥ 9 ॥{pramēyauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.9)</blockquote>Both Pramana and Prameya have been extensively discussed under the heading [[Pramana (प्रमाणम्)|Pramana]].

; 3. '''संशयः ॥ Samshaya (Doubt)''': It appears as "or" and "is this thing this or that". Doubt is the uncertain idea that we have of things and is a necessary factor, the very basis, of the process of Reasoning.   

; 3. '''संशयः ॥ Samshaya (Doubt)''': It appears as "or" and "is this thing this or that". Doubt is the uncertain idea that we have of things and is a necessary factor, the very basis, of the process of Reasoning.   

<blockquote>समानानेकधर्मोपपत्तेः विप्रतिपत्तेः उपलब्ध्यनुपलब्ध्यव्यवस्थातः च विशेषापेक्षः विमर्शः संशयः ॥२३॥ {संशयलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.23)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>

<blockquote>समानानेकधर्मोपपत्तेः विप्रतिपत्तेः उपलब्ध्यनुपलब्ध्यव्यवस्थातः च विशेषापेक्षः विमर्शः संशयः ॥२३॥ {संशयलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.23)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>samānānēkadharmōpapattēḥ vipratipattēḥ upalabdhyanupalabdhyavyavasthātaḥ ca viśēṣāpēkṣaḥ vimarśaḥ saṁśayaḥ ॥23॥ {saṁśayalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.23)</blockquote>

; 4. '''प्रयोजनम् ॥ Prayojana (Motive)''' : It is that, on being urged, by which a man has recourse to activity, i.e., with a desire either to obtain or reject a man is motivated into Action. Proyojana or motive is the basis of all reasoning or investigation according to Nyaya. Motive bears upon all living beings, all actions and all shastras.   

; 4. '''प्रयोजनम् ॥ Prayojana (Motive)''' : It is that, on being urged, by which a man has recourse to activity, i.e., with a desire either to obtain or reject a man is motivated into Action. Proyojana or motive is the basis of all reasoning or investigation according to Nyaya. Motive bears upon all living beings, all actions and all shastras.   

<blockquote>यं अर्थं अधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते तत्प्रयोजनम् ॥२४॥{प्रयोजनलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.24)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>

<blockquote>यं अर्थं अधिकृत्य प्रवर्तते तत्प्रयोजनम् ॥२४॥{प्रयोजनलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.24)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>yaṁ arthaṁ adhikr̥tya pravartatē tatprayōjanam ॥24॥{prayōjanalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.24)</blockquote>

; 5. '''दृष्टान्तः ॥ Drshtanta (Example)''': It is something that is directly comprehended, without any need for proof and so is self-evident. It is something which cannot fail to be known or perceived. It can be called as object of cognition (Prameya) but is mentioned separately, because Anumana and Shabda pramanas are both dependent upon it for only through a Drsthanta can they explained. Thus Drshtanta forms the basis on which Reasoning proceeds and is required even to demolish an opponent's position and establish one's stand on a theory.  

; 5. '''दृष्टान्तः ॥ Drshtanta (Example)''': It is something that is directly comprehended, without any need for proof and so is self-evident. It is something which cannot fail to be known or perceived. It can be called as object of cognition (Prameya) but is mentioned separately, because Anumana and Shabda pramanas are both dependent upon it for only through a Drsthanta can they explained. Thus Drshtanta forms the basis on which Reasoning proceeds and is required even to demolish an opponent's position and establish one's stand on a theory.  

<blockquote>लौकिकपरीक्षकाणां यस्मिनर्थे बुद्धिसाम्यं सः दृष्टान्तः ॥२५॥ {दृष्टान्तलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.25)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>

<blockquote>लौकिकपरीक्षकाणां यस्मिनर्थे बुद्धिसाम्यं सः दृष्टान्तः ॥२५॥ {दृष्टान्तलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.25)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>laukikaparīkṣakāṇāṁ yasminarthē buddhisāmyaṁ saḥ dr̥ṣṭāntaḥ ॥25॥ {dr̥ṣṭāntalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.25)</blockquote>

; 6. '''सिद्धान्तः ॥ Siddhanta (Theory or Accepted Conclusions)''': [[Siddhanta (सिद्धान्तः)]] A proposition or statement of fact asserted in the form "this is so" is called Theory. This also can be an object of cognition but yet is enunciated separately by itself because it is only when there are a number of different theories, and never otherwise, that the three forms of Debate - Discussion, Disagreement and Arguments.  

; 6. '''सिद्धान्तः ॥ Siddhanta (Theory or Accepted Conclusions)''': [[Siddhanta (सिद्धान्तः)]] A proposition or statement of fact asserted in the form "this is so" is called Theory. This also can be an object of cognition but yet is enunciated separately by itself because it is only when there are a number of different theories, and never otherwise, that the three forms of Debate - Discussion, Disagreement and Arguments.  

<blockquote>तन्त्राधिकरणाभ्युपगमसंस्थितिः सिद्धान्तः ॥२६॥ {अभ्युपगमसिद्धान्तलक्षणम्}  (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.27)<ref name=":4" /> </blockquote>

<blockquote>तन्त्राधिकरणाभ्युपगमसंस्थितिः सिद्धान्तः ॥२६॥ {अभ्युपगमसिद्धान्तलक्षणम्}  (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.26)<ref name=":4" /> </blockquote><blockquote>tantrādhikaraṇābhyupagamasaṁsthitiḥ siddhāntaḥ ॥26॥ {abhyupagamasiddhāntalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.26)</blockquote>

; 7. '''अवयवः ॥ Avayavas (Factors of Inference or Premises)''' : When a conclusion has to be made, a number of words or sentences (Statements) have to be used. The [[Pancha Avayavas (पञ्चावयवाः)|Pancha Avayavas (अवयवाः)]] are the 5 types of Statements or Premises that are necessary to prove a certain conclusion. They are Pratijna, Hetu, Udaharana, Upanaya and Nigamana which when taken collectively are called as Factors of Inference.  

; 7. '''अवयवः ॥ Avayavas (Factors of Inference or Premises)''' : When a conclusion has to be made, a number of words or sentences (Statements) have to be used. The [[Pancha Avayavas (पञ्चावयवाः)|Pancha Avayavas (अवयवाः)]] are the 5 types of Statements or Premises that are necessary to prove a certain conclusion. They are Pratijna, Hetu, Udaharana, Upanaya and Nigamana which when taken collectively are called as Factors of Inference.  

<blockquote> प्रतिज्ञाहेतूदाहरणोपनयनिगमनानि अवयवाः ॥३२॥ {अवयवौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.32)<ref name=":4" /> </blockquote>

<blockquote> प्रतिज्ञाहेतूदाहरणोपनयनिगमनानि अवयवाः ॥३२॥ {अवयवौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.32)<ref name=":4" /> </blockquote><blockquote>pratijñāhētūdāharaṇōpanayanigamanāni avayavāḥ ॥32॥ {avayavauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.32)</blockquote>

; 8. '''तर्कः ॥ Tarka (Argumentation)''': It leads to the ascertainment of their validity or invalidity and thus helps in the attaining of true knowledge. Though a category of the Prameya it is enunciated separately because along with the Pramana it is of use in Debate, both in establishing one's own position and in demolishing the position of the opponent.<ref name=":6" /> Tarka means the deliberation on an unknown thing to discern its real nature. (Page 360 of Reference <ref name=":12" />).

; 8. '''तर्कः ॥ Tarka (Argumentation)''': It leads to the ascertainment of their validity or invalidity and thus helps in the attaining of true knowledge. Though a category of the Prameya it is enunciated separately because along with the Pramana it is of use in Debate, both in establishing one's own position and in demolishing the position of the opponent.<ref name=":6" /> Tarka means the deliberation on an unknown thing to discern its real nature. (Page 360 of Reference <ref name=":12" />).

<blockquote>अविज्ञाततत्वे अर्थे कारणोपपत्तितः तत्त्वज्ञानार्थं उहः तर्कः॥४०॥{तर्कलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.40)<ref name=":4" /> </blockquote>

<blockquote>अविज्ञाततत्वे अर्थे कारणोपपत्तितः तत्त्वज्ञानार्थं उहः तर्कः॥४०॥{तर्कलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.40)<ref name=":4" /> </blockquote><blockquote>avijñātatatvē arthē kāraṇōpapattitaḥ tattvajñānārthaṁ uhaḥ tarkaḥ॥40॥{tarkalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.40)</blockquote>

; 9. '''निर्णयः ॥ Nirnaya (Ascertainment, Validated Truth)''': It is the conclusion which consists of true knowledge obtained as the result of the Pramana. It is the final aim of all Debate or Vada which is ascertained after duly deliberating over the two sides of the question.

; 9. '''निर्णयः ॥ Nirnaya (Ascertainment, Validated Truth)''': It is the conclusion which consists of true knowledge obtained as the result of the Pramana. It is the final aim of all Debate or Vada which is ascertained after duly deliberating over the two sides of the question.

<blockquote>विमृश्य पक्षप्रतिपक्षाभ्यां अर्थावधारणं निर्णयः॥४१॥ {निर्णयलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.41)<ref name=":4" /> </blockquote>

<blockquote>विमृश्य पक्षप्रतिपक्षाभ्यां अर्थावधारणं निर्णयः॥४१॥ {निर्णयलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.41)<ref name=":4" /> </blockquote><blockquote>vimr̥śya pakṣapratipakṣābhyāṁ arthāvadhāraṇaṁ nirṇayaḥ॥41॥ {nirṇayalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.1.41)</blockquote>

; 10. '''वादः ॥ Vada (Debate)''': It consists of a number of statements (sentences, declarations) put forward by various speakers, purporting to be proofs and reasonings in support of and condemnation of several siddhantas. These two conceptions proceed hand in hand until one of them becomes rejected and leading ultimately to the acceptance of one of them as the validated truth or Nirnaya.

; 10. '''वादः ॥ Vada (Debate)''': It consists of a number of statements (sentences, declarations) put forward by various speakers, purporting to be proofs and reasonings in support of and condemnation of several siddhantas. These two conceptions proceed hand in hand until one of them becomes rejected and leading ultimately to the acceptance of one of them as the validated truth or Nirnaya.

<blockquote>प्रमाणतर्कसाधनोपालम्भः सिद्धान्ताविरुद्धः पञ्चावयवोपपन्नः पक्षप्रतिपक्षपरिग्रहः वादः ॥१॥ {वादलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.1)<ref name=":0">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 2])</ref></blockquote>

<blockquote>प्रमाणतर्कसाधनोपालम्भः सिद्धान्ताविरुद्धः पञ्चावयवोपपन्नः पक्षप्रतिपक्षपरिग्रहः वादः ॥१॥ {वादलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.1)<ref name=":0">Nyaya Sutras ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BF/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%83 Adhyaya 1 Ahnika 2])</ref></blockquote><blockquote>pramāṇatarkasādhanōpālambhaḥ siddhāntāviruddhaḥ pañcāvayavōpapannaḥ pakṣapratipakṣaparigrahaḥ vādaḥ ॥1॥ {vādalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.1)</blockquote>

; 11. '''जल्पः ॥ Jalpa (Disputations)''':Jalpa is endowed with the following characteristics - a) it puts forward a conception and counter-conception b) consists in supporting and condemning by means of proofs and reasonings c) is not opposed to the main doctrine and d) is carried on in full accordance with the method of reasoning through five factors according to Vatsyayana bhashya. Jalpa differs from Vada in that it admits the use of deceptiveness (Casuistry) etc which is not allowed in vada. Jalpa is that which is endowed with the said characteristics and in which there is supporting and condemnation by means of Chhala, Jati and Nigrahastana.  

; 11. '''जल्पः ॥ Jalpa (Disputations)''':Jalpa is endowed with the following characteristics - a) it puts forward a conception and counter-conception b) consists in supporting and condemning by means of proofs and reasonings c) is not opposed to the main doctrine and d) is carried on in full accordance with the method of reasoning through five factors according to Vatsyayana bhashya. Jalpa differs from Vada in that it admits the use of deceptiveness (Casuistry) etc which is not allowed in vada. Jalpa is that which is endowed with the said characteristics and in which there is supporting and condemnation by means of Chhala, Jati and Nigrahastana.  

<blockquote>यथोक्तोपपन्नः छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानसाधनोपालम्भः जल्पः ॥२॥ {जल्पलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.2)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>

<blockquote>यथोक्तोपपन्नः छलजातिनिग्रहस्थानसाधनोपालम्भः जल्पः ॥२॥ {जल्पलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.2)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>yathōktōpapannaḥ chalajātinigrahasthānasādhanōpālambhaḥ jalpaḥ ॥2॥ {jalpalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.2)</blockquote>

; 12. '''वितण्डा ॥ Vitanda (Destructive Criticism)''': Vitanda also differs from vada in that it does not tend to the establishment of any position which is not so in the case of Vada where a conclusion is arrived at. Disputation (Jalpa) becomes Vitanda when there is no establishment of the counter-conception.

; 12. '''वितण्डा ॥ Vitanda (Destructive Criticism)''': Vitanda also differs from vada in that it does not tend to the establishment of any position which is not so in the case of Vada where a conclusion is arrived at. Disputation (Jalpa) becomes Vitanda when there is no establishment of the counter-conception.

<blockquote>सः प्रतिपक्षस्थापनाहीनः वितण्डा ॥३॥ {वितण्डालक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.3)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote>

<blockquote>सः प्रतिपक्षस्थापनाहीनः वितण्डा ॥३॥ {वितण्डालक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.3)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>saḥ pratipakṣasthāpanāhīnaḥ vitaṇḍā ॥3॥ {vitaṇḍālakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.3)</blockquote>

; 13. '''हेत्वाभासः ॥ Hetvabhasa (Fallacy)''' : [[Hetvabhasa (हेत्वाभासः)]] are so called because they do not possess all the characteristics of the true hetus discussed in 1.1.32, yet they are sufficiently similar to them to appear like them.  

; 13. '''हेत्वाभासः ॥ Hetvabhasa (Fallacy)''' : [[Hetvabhasa (हेत्वाभासः)]] are so called because they do not possess all the characteristics of the true hetus discussed in 1.1.32, yet they are sufficiently similar to them to appear like them.  

<blockquote>सव्यभिचारविरुद्धप्रकरणसमसाध्यसमकालातीताः हेत्वाभासाः ॥४॥ {हेत्वाभासौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.4)<ref name=":0" />  </blockquote>

<blockquote>सव्यभिचारविरुद्धप्रकरणसमसाध्यसमकालातीताः हेत्वाभासाः ॥४॥ {हेत्वाभासौद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.4)<ref name=":0" />  </blockquote><blockquote>savyabhicāraviruddhaprakaraṇasamasādhyasamakālātītāḥ hētvābhāsāḥ ॥4॥ {hētvābhāsauddēśasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.4)</blockquote>

; 14. '''च्छलः ॥ Chhala (Minor deception)''': [[Chhala (छलः)|Chhala (च्छलः)]]  consists in opposing a proposition by assigning to it a meaning other than the one intended. It is of three kinds.

; 14. '''च्छलः ॥ Chhala (Minor deception)''': [[Chhala (छलः)|Chhala (च्छलः)]]  consists in opposing a proposition by assigning to it a meaning other than the one intended. It is of three kinds.

<blockquote>वचनविघातः अर्थविकल्पोपपत्त्या छलम् ॥१०॥{छललक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.10)<ref name=":0" /> </blockquote>

<blockquote>वचनविघातः अर्थविकल्पोपपत्त्या छलम् ॥१०॥{छललक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.10)<ref name=":0" /> </blockquote><blockquote>vacanavighātaḥ arthavikalpōpapattyā chalam ॥10॥{chalalakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.10)</blockquote>

; 15. '''जातिः ॥ Jati (Refutation)''': Refutation is that objection which is taken on the basis of mere similarity and dissimilarity.

; 15. '''जातिः ॥ Jati (Refutation)''': Refutation is that objection which is taken on the basis of mere similarity and dissimilarity.

<blockquote>साधर्म्यवैधर्म्याभ्यां प्रत्यवस्थानं जातिः॥१८॥ {जातिलक्षणम्}</blockquote>

<blockquote>साधर्म्यवैधर्म्याभ्यां प्रत्यवस्थानं जातिः॥१८॥ {जातिलक्षणम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.18)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>sādharmyavaidharmyābhyāṁ pratyavasthānaṁ jātiḥ॥18॥ {jātilakṣaṇam} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.18)</blockquote>

; 16. '''निग्रहस्थानम् ॥ Nigrahasthana (Points of opponent's defeat)''' : Nigrahastana is when there is Misapprehension and Incomprehension. Misapprehension is that comprehension which is either wrong or reprehensible. Incomprehension is when a person does not say anything in the instance where it is required of him to say so. Both these leads a man to defeat.

; 16. '''निग्रहस्थानम् ॥ Nigrahasthana (Points of opponent's defeat)''' : Nigrahastana is when there is Misapprehension and Incomprehension. Misapprehension is that comprehension which is either wrong or reprehensible. Incomprehension is when a person does not say anything in the instance where it is required of him to say so. Both these leads a man to defeat.

<blockquote>विप्रतिपत्तिः अप्रतिपत्तिः च निग्रहस्थानम् ॥१९॥ {निग्रहस्थानलक्षणम्}  तद्विकल्पात्जातिनिग्रहस्थानबहुत्वम् ॥२०॥ {निग्रहस्थानबहुत्वसूत्रम्}</blockquote>

<blockquote>विप्रतिपत्तिः अप्रतिपत्तिः च निग्रहस्थानम् ॥१९॥ {निग्रहस्थानलक्षणम्}  तद्विकल्पात्जातिनिग्रहस्थानबहुत्वम् ॥२०॥ {निग्रहस्थानबहुत्वसूत्रम्} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.19 and 20)<ref name=":0" /></blockquote><blockquote>vipratipattiḥ apratipattiḥ ca nigrahasthānam ॥19॥ {nigrahasthānalakṣaṇam} tadvikalpātjātinigrahasthānabahutvam ॥20॥ {nigrahasthānabahutvasūtram} (Nyay. Sutr. 1.2.19 and 20)</blockquote>

== पदार्थज्ञानाप्रयोजनम् ॥ Padartha Jnana Prayojana ==

== पदार्थज्ञानाप्रयोजनम् ॥ Padartha Jnana Prayojana ==

The Nyaya shastra explicitly dealing with the process of Reasoning, Means of right cognition and other Padarthas (categories) is the lamp for all tattva shastras; the Means (of Knowledge) of all things and is the very basis of all activities of the universe and hence expounded at the very outset of investigative procedures. The very first Nyaya sutra states that the attainment of [[Nihshreyasa (निःश्रेयसम्)|Nihshreyasa]] is the goal of the knowledge of Padarthas. Now does Nihshreyasa or the Ultimate Good appear immediately after gaining "true knowledge" or padartha jnana? to which the following sutra answers, that after gaining padartha jnana<blockquote>दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरापायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.2)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote>There is cessation of each of the following series, the cessation of that which follows brings about the annihilation of that which precedes it and ultimately leads to Nihshreyasa or the Ultimate Good of any being (PDF Page number 31 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

The Nyaya shastra explicitly dealing with the process of Reasoning, Means of right cognition and other Padarthas (categories) is the lamp for all tattva shastras; the Means (of Knowledge) of all things and is the very basis of all activities of the universe and hence expounded at the very outset of investigative procedures. The very first Nyaya sutra states that the attainment of [[Nihshreyasa (निःश्रेयसम्)|Nihshreyasa]] is the goal of the knowledge of Padarthas. Now does Nihshreyasa or the Ultimate Good appear immediately after gaining "true knowledge" or padartha jnana? to which the following sutra answers, that after gaining padartha jnana<blockquote>दुःखजन्मप्रवृत्तिदोषमिथ्याज्ञानानां उत्तरोत्तरापाये तदनन्तरापायातपवर्गः।।२।। {पदार्थोद्देशसूत्रम्} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.2)<ref name=":4" /></blockquote><blockquote>duḥkhajanmapravr̥ttidōṣamithyājñānānāṁ uttarōttarāpāyē tadanantarāpāyātapavargaḥ।।2।। {padārthōddēśasūtram} (Nyaya. Sutr. 1.1.2)</blockquote>There is cessation of each of the following series, the cessation of that which follows brings about the annihilation of that which precedes it and ultimately leads to Nihshreyasa or the Ultimate Good of any being (PDF Page number 31 of Reference <ref name=":6" />)

* मिथ्याज्ञानम् ॥ Wrong Notion

* मिथ्याज्ञानम् ॥ Wrong Notion

* दोषः ॥ Defects (such as Envy, Jealousy, Deceit, Avarice and others)

* दोषः ॥ Defects (such as Envy, Jealousy, Deceit, Avarice and others)

Of the मिथ्याज्ञानानि (Wrong Notions), that cease after the attainment of true knowledge, there are various kinds as follows

Of the मिथ्याज्ञानानि (Wrong Notions), that cease after the attainment of true knowledge, there are various kinds as follows

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

|+Different forms of मिथ्याज्ञानाम् ॥ Wrong Notion

|+Different forms of मिथ्याज्ञानाम् ॥ Wrong Notion and Comparison with Right Notion

!Reference

!Reference

!मिथ्याज्ञानाम् ॥ Wrong Notion

!मिथ्याज्ञानाम् ॥ Wrong Notion

|What is Non-Self is non-self

|What is Non-Self is non-self

|-

|-

|दुःख (Pain)

| rowspan="6" |दुःख (Pain) and others

|Pain is regarded as pleasure

|Pain is regarded as pleasure

| rowspan="6" |Pain is distinct from pleasure, so also real characteristics of others Eternal, Safety, Fearful, disgusting, and unworthy are known.

| rowspan="6" |Pain is distinct from pleasure, so also real characteristics of others Eternal, Safety, Fearful, disgusting, and unworthy are known.

|-

|-

|Non-eternal is regarded as Eternal

|Non-eternal is regarded as Eternal

|-

|-

|Non-safety is regarded as Safety

|Non-safety is regarded as Safety

|-

|-

|Fearful is regarded as free from fear

|Fearful is regarded as free from fear

|-

|-

|Disgusting is regarded as agreeable

|Disgusting is regarded as agreeable

|-

|-

|Unworthy is regarded as worthy

|Unworthy is regarded as worthy

|-

|-

|Punarjanma (transmigration) is due to Doshas

|Punarjanma (transmigration) is due to Doshas

|-

|-

| rowspan="5" |जन्म (Birth)

| rowspan="6" |जन्म (Birth)

|No living being, an animal, Atma having died could be reborn again

|No living being, an animal, Atma having died could be reborn again

|An animal, a living being, an Atma after death (physical) is reborn

|An animal, a living being, an Atma after death (physical) is reborn

|Even though it has a cause, Punarjanma cannot be due to Karma

|Even though it has a cause, Punarjanma cannot be due to Karma

|Death and Punarjanma having a cause, is caused by Activity (meritorious or with demerit)

|Death and Punarjanma having a cause, is caused by Activity (meritorious or with demerit)

|-

|-

| rowspan="3" |Nihshreyasa (Ultimate Good) Moksha

| rowspan="3" |Nihshreyasa (Ultimate Good) Moksha

|It is something terrible, involving cessation of all activity

|It is something terrible, involving cessation of all activity

|

| rowspan="2" |Jivanmukti - Cessation and dissociation from all things and from all activity is extremely peaceful. All that is painful, frightful and wrongful disappears on mukti.

|-

|-

|Involves dissociation from all things, including that which is desirable

|Involves dissociation from all things, including that which is desirable

|-

|-

|A longing for such Ultimate Good in which there is neither pleasure nor pain, nor any consciousness is undesirable

|A longing for such Ultimate Good in which there is neither pleasure nor pain, nor any consciousness is undesirable

|

|What is peaceful is always longed for and desired by any sane person. Mukti involves freedom from pain and pleasure also because all pleasure is invariably connected with some pain and should be avoided.

|}

|}