Philosophical Discourse (सम्भाषा)

Philosophical Discourse (Samskrit: सम्भाषा) or participating in philosophical debates is considered one of the three methods to obtain knowledge; the other two being, adhyayana (study) and adhyapana (teaching), says the Charaka Samhita.

अध्ययनमध्यापनं तद्विद्यसम्भाषा चेत्युपायाः ॥४॥ adhyayanamadhyāpanaṁ tadvidyasambhāṣetyupāyāḥ ॥4॥

Meaning: To this end, we shall indicate the means viz. study, teaching and discussion with those versed in the same subject.

This article is an introduction to the science of 'Tadvidya Sambhasha' (debate between experts of same field).

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

There was a long and a time-honored tradition in ancient India where philosophers and thinkers met to discuss metaphysical issues over which there were multiple views. There are detailed narrations of such discussions, debates and dialogues recorded in Chandogya Upanishad, Brhadaranyaka Upanishad and Prashna Upanishad.

Few other terms that the other early texts such as Aitareya Brahmana, Kathopanishad and others use in this context include:

• Tarka (reasoning)
• Vada (debate)
• Yukti (sustained arguments)
• Prameya (object of knowledge),
• Pramana (proof),
• Nirnaya (ascertainment) etc.

These later became the principal terminologies of the Nyaya School. While the Manu Samhita and Maharshi Panini's Ashtadhyayi mentioned the idioms of inquiry (Anveshiki) dealing with the theory of reasons (Hetu vidya or Hetu shastra).

व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology

Shabdakalpadruma explains Sambhasha as Sambhashana. It says,

सम्भाषा सम्भाषणम् ॥ sambhāṣā sambhāṣaṇam ॥

And Sambhashana is,

सम्भाषणं कथनम् । आलापनम् । sambhāṣaṇaṁ kathanam । ālāpanam ।

Vachaspatya highlights 2 aspects of conversing. That is,

1. सम्यक्कथने (samyakkathane | approprite speech/conversation)
2. परस्परकथने च (parasparakathane | conversing with each other)

सम्भाषायाः इतिहासः ॥ History of Sambhasha

The science of inquiry, Atmavidya, was at a later stage called Anvikshiki. However, while comprising the entire function of Atmavidya, Anvikshiki, was in fact different from it. Kautilya recognized Anvikshiki as a distinct branch of study over and above the three, viz, Trayi (the Vedas), Vartta (Commerce) and Dandaniti (Polity).

आन्वीक्षिकी त्रयी वार्त्ता दण्ड-नीतिश्चैति विद्याः ।। ०१.२.०१ ।। ānvīkṣikī trayī vārttā daṇḍa-nītiścaiti vidyāḥ ।। 01.2.01 ।।

The distinction between Atmavidya and Anvikshiki lay in this, that while the former embodied assertions about the nature of atman, the latter contained reasons supporting those assertions. Therefore, Anvikshiki dealt in fact with two subjects, viz. atman and hetu (theory of reasons).

Later on, Anvikshiki was recognized as a distinct branch of learning that bifurcated into two branches - philosophy and logic. And this logic, developed in ancient India through the tradition of Vada Vidya, a discipline dealing with the categories of debate over various religious, philosophical, moral and doctrinal issues. Hence, Sambhasha is also called as Vada (discussion) in many texts.

This concept of Vada is derived from the Nyaya darshana. It is said that,

प्रमाणतर्कसाधनोपालम्भः सिद्धान्ताविरुद्धः पञ्चावयवोपपन्नः पक्षप्रतिपक्षपरिग्रहः वादः ।।१।।

pramāṇatarkasādhanōpālambhaḥ siddhāntāviruddhaḥ pañcāvayavōpapannaḥ pakṣapratipakṣaparigrahaḥ vādaḥ ।।1।।

Amongst the 44 Vada marga padas (logical terms used in debate), the first one is Vada. It refers to a debate following the laws of shastra (text) ie. it should have 5 avayavas, paksha (in favour) and Pratipaksha (in opposing side) both laid down on the basis of Pramana (parametres of evidence) and tarka (logical reasoning).

And this methodology of philosophical debate in India, gave rise to the study of the form of correct arguments and inference patterns as part of the science of Logic.

वादविद्या ॥ Vada Vidya

Nyaya, one among the Shad Darshanas, deals with well-organized logical ways of ascertaining the true nature of the objects and subjects of human knowledge (Pramana Shastra). It is also called Tarka vidya (logic) and Vada vidya or Vadartha (reasoned argument); and is included among the Chaturdasha Vidyasthanani (fourteen principal branches of learning).

The Nyaya Sutras mainly treat five subjects:

1. Pramana (instruments or means of right knowledge)
2. Prameya (the object of right knowledge)
3. Vada (debate or discussion)
4. Avayava (the elements or steps of syllogism)
5. Anya-mata-pariksha (review or examination of the doctrines of other Schools)

Therefore, types of debates and arguments come under the purview of Nyaya Shastra.

While discussing Vada, Nyaya Sutra talks about sixteen padarthas (topics or categories) involved in the development of the debate (Vada marga). They are

• The four reliable means of obtaining valid knowledge (pramana). Namely, Pratyaksha (perception), Anumana (inference), Upamana (comparison) and Shabda (reliable testimony)
• The five-part syllogism (Nyaya)
• The structure (Vada vidhi)
• The ways of developing sound evidence (Pramana)
• The logical reasoning (tarka) to support one's thesis which needs to be proved (Pratijna) and its object (Nirnaya)
• The disciplined (Anushasana) mode of presentation (Vadopaya) and the exceptions (Prthaka-prasthana)
• The limits or the ‘dos and don’ts’ (Vada maryada) of three formats of such debates.

The Nyaya Model

Akshapada defined a method of philosophical argumentation, called the Nyaya method or the Nyaya model. This was the standard for an ideally organized philosophical disputation. Seven categories are identified as constituting each the "prior" and "posterior" stage of a Nyaya. A Nyaya starts with an initial doubt, as to whether p or not-p is the case, and ends with a decision, that p (or not-p, as the case may be). The seven categories of the prior stage include,

1. Doubt
2. Purpose
3. Example
4. Basic Tenets
5. The "limbs" (Avayavas) of the formulated reasoning
6. Supportive Argument (Tarka)
7. Decision.

Out of these 7 categories, the need for 'Purpose' is self-explanatory, the 'example' is needed to ensure that the arguments would not be just empty talk, while the 'basic tenets' supply the ground rules for the argumentation.

The "limbs” (Avayavas) were the most important formulation of the structure of a logical reasoning; these are a landmark in the history of Indian logic. According to the Nyayasutras, there are five "limbs" or "steps" (Pancha Avayavas) in a structured reasoning. And they should all be articulated linguistically. Each of these 5 steps are explained with an example in the following table.

Pancha Avayavas - 5 Steps in a Structured Reasoning

Sr.no.	The Step or Limb	Example
Step 1	The statement of the thesis	There is fire on the hill.
Step 2	The statement of reason or evidence	For there is smoke.
Step 3	Citation of an example (or a particular case) well-recognized and acceptable to both sides that illustrates the underlying (general) principle and thereby supports the reason or evidence.	(Wherever there is smoke, there is fire), as in the kitchen.
Step 4	The showing of the present thesis as a case that belongs to the general case. For reason or evidence is essentially similar to the example cited.	This is such a case (smoke on the hill).
Step 5	The assertion of the thesis again as proven or established	Therefore it is so, i.e., there is fire on the hill.

The Nyaya school asserted all along that this Nyaya method is used by the arguer to convince others. And that, to satisfy completely the expectation (akanksha) of another, you need all the five "limbs" or steps. This is in fact a full-fledged articulation of an inference schema.

Returning to the Nyaya method itself, the supportive argument (tarka) is needed when doubts are raised about the implication of the middle part of the above inference schema. Like, Is the example right? Does it support the evidence? Is the general principle right? Is it adequate? The "supportive arguments” would examine the alternative possibilities, and try to resolve all these questions. And thus, after the supportive argument, comes the decision, one way or another.

Another seven categories were identified as constituting the "posterior" stage of the Nyaya method. They consist of,

• The three types of debate (Vada, Jalpa and Vitanda)
• The group of tricks
• False rejoinders
• Clinchers or defeat situations
• Pseudo-reason or Pseudo evidence.