Vidya (विद्या)

This article needs editing. Add and improvise the content from reliable sources.

Vidya (Samskrit : विद्या), a word, devoid of an English equivalent, and loosely translated as Learning or Education was regarded as the best agency for improving society at all times and hence focus was that it should be available to all those who are qualified to receive it. Upanayana was the samskara, that was usually performed, to mark the initiation of a child (of all varnas and both genders) into education. It was further declared in the Brhadaranyaka Upanishad that

... विद्यया देवलोको देवलोको वै लोकाना श्रेष्ठस् तस्माद्विद्यां प्रशसन्ति ॥ यद्वै किञ्चानूक्तम् तस्य सर्वस्य ब्रह्मेत्येकता .... तस्मात् पुत्रमनुशिष्टं लोक्यमाहुस् तस्मादेनमनुशासति । (Brha. Upan. 1.5.16 and 17)

... vidyayā devaloko devaloko vai lokānā śreṣṭhas tasmādvidyāṁ praśasanti ॥ yadvai kiñcānūktam tasya sarvasya brahmetyekatā .... tasmāt putramanuśiṣṭaṁ lokyamāhus tasmādenamanuśāsati ।

One can attain the devaloka through vidya alone; devaloka being the best of the (three) worlds. Hence vidya is to be praised. (Here vidya is taken to mean meditation or that knowledge of Self required for attaining the higher worlds). Whatever is studied is all unified in the word Brahman.... Therefore they speak of an educated son as being conducive to the world. Hence (a father) teaches his son (Page No 230 of Reference ).

Thus we see that while the goal of education is attainment of knowledge of the Self, students were primarily taught the Vedas and associated Vaidika Vangmaya as the stepping stones to learn and practice the Purusharthas, Trivarga - Dharma, Artha and Kama which was then used to attain the fourth one namely Moksha. Hence people of different varnas irrespective of their gender, social and financial status, received at least the rudiment of literary, philosophical, theological, social and professional education, until the first millennium of the Christian era when conducting upanayanas decreased among the varnas and girls were married at the age of 10 owing to several causes.

परिचयः ॥ Introduction

The Mundakopanishad refers to two levels of learning in Saunaka Angirasa Samvada, as given below

द्वे विद्ये वेदितव्ये इति ह स्म, यद्ब्रह्मविदो वदन्ति परा चैवापरा च ॥ ४ ॥

तत्रापरा ऋग्वेदो यजुर्वेदः सामवेदोऽथर्ववेदः, शिक्षा कल्पो व्याकरणं निरुक्तं छन्दो ज्योतिषमिति । अथ परा यया तदक्षरमधिगम्यते ॥ ५ ॥ (Mund. Upan. 1.1.4-5)

Summary : There are two kinds of knowledge to be acquired as per tradition, which according to the knowers of Vedas, those who realised the supreme Truth, is- the higher, knowledge of the Supreme Self (Para Vidya) and the lower, knowledge of virtue and vice and their means and ends (Apara Vidya). Of these the lower (knowledge) comprises the Rigveda, Yajur veda, Sama veda, Atharva veda, Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas, Jyotisha (science of pronunciation, code of yajnas, grammar, etymology, meter and astronomy). Then there is the higher (Para knowledge) by which is attained that Aksharam Immutable Brahman.

Thus we have a broad classification of Vidya as

1. पराविद्या ॥ Para Vidya - higher knowledge for Self Realization
2. अपराविद्या ॥ Apara Vidya - lower knowledge required for life

The word Vidya (विद्या), devoid of an English equivalent and loosely translated as Education, deals with that procedural knowledge essential for understanding the worldly social, philosophical and theological aspects of Sanatana Dharma. Ancient seers had holistic perspective as to why a student should be given the higher knowledge of Self in different forms such as Brahmavidya, Bhumavidya, Panchagnividya, each of which was one way to achieve the common goal of Moksha. It may appear that preceptors of the ancient ages have focused only on the ultimate spiritual goal of Atmavidya (attainment of the knowledge of the the Self) which is more a personal goal for the student. The knowledge of the Brahman is distinctively mentioned and it is called the higher knowledge since, even after the mastery of the assemblage of words, the realisation of the Self is not possible without other efforts consisting of approaching the teacher and so on, as well as detachment. Unlike the Agnihotra and other yajnas which require the performance of an action subsequent to the understanding of the text, through a combination of numerous accessories, the domain of higher knowledge does not require actions, nothing remains to be performed.

व्युत्पत्तिः॥ Etymology

According to Shabdakalpadhruma, Vidya (विद्या) originates from the dhatu विदँ used in the meaning of Jnana (ज्ञाने).

तत्तु मोक्षे धीः । इति जटाधरः ॥ That which is the knowledge of Moksha - as defined by Jatadhara.

परमोत्तमपुरुषार्थसाधनीभूता विद्या ब्रह्मज्ञानरूपा । इति नागोजीभट्टः ॥

Vidya is that form of Brahmajnana which is the instrument to achieve Paramottama Purushartha namely Moksha as per Nagoji Bhatta.

By the word Vidya is implied the realization of the thing to be known.

In this article we reflect upon the syllabus of ancient shikshana vidhana (education system) which consisted of imparting Apara Vidya of worldly knowledge. Vidya was said to be complete with the adhyayana of Chaturdasha Vidyas (and Astadasha Vidyas) dealt in our Vaidika Vangmaya imparted by Gurus to students before putting them on the path of seeking Para Vidya.

विद्यास्थानानि ॥ Vidyasthanas

Chaturdasha vidyas (चतुर्दशविद्याः) are called the Vidyasthanas (विद्यास्थानानि) as they give comprehensive knowledge of all the four Purusharthas namely, Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha, the first three pertaining to worldly knowledge. These include the

• Chaturvedas - The Four Vedas (Rigveda, Yajurveda, Samaveda and Atharvanaveda)
• Vedangas - The Six Vedangas (Shiksha, Kalpa, Vyakarana, Nirukta, Chandas and Jyotisha)
• Upangas - (Puranas, Nyaya shastra (and Vaiseshika), Mimamsa and Dharmashastra).

चतुर्दशविद्याः ॥ Chaturdasha Vidyas

Agni Purana, one of the oldest Puranas, gives the following information about the constituents Para and Apara Vidyas.

ऋग्यजुःसामाश्चर्वाख्या विद्या विष्णुर्जगज्जनिः । छन्दः शिक्षा व्याकरणं निधण्टुज्योतिराख्यकाः ।। ३८३.२ ।।

निरुक्तधर्मशास्त्रादि मीमांसान्यायविस्तराः । आयुर्वेदपुराणाख्या धनुर्गन्धर्वविस्तराः ।। ३८३.३ ।।

विद्या सैवार्थसास्त्राख्या वेदान्ताऽन्या हरिर्महान् । इत्येषा चापरा विद्या परविद्याऽक्षरं ।। ३८३.४ ।। (Agni. Pura. 383.2-4)

According to Vachaspatya, Nandi Purana gives the 14 vidyasthanas as follows

वेदादिषु चतुर्दशसु विद्यासु। ताश्च विद्याश्चतुर्दश प्रोक्ताः क्रमेण तु यथास्थिति। षडङ्गमिश्रितावेदा धर्म्मशास्त्रं पुराणकम्। मीमांमातर्कमपि च एता विद्याश्चतुर्दश | नन्दि पु०।

vedādiṣu caturdaśasu vidyāsu। tāśca vidyāścaturdaśa proktāḥ krameṇa tu yathāsthiti। ṣaḍaṅgamiśritāvedā dharmmaśāstraṃ purāṇakam। mīmāṃmātarkamapi ca etā vidyāścaturdaśa| nandi pu।

Meaning : Fourteen vidyas are given as - vedas with their 6 angas (अङ्ग-s), dharmashastra, purana, mimamsa (मीमांसा) with tarka (तर्कः). According to Vachaspatya,

पुराणन्यायमीमांसाधर्म्मशास्त्राङ्गमिश्रिताः। वेदाः स्थानानि विद्यानां धर्म्मस्य च चतुर्दश” या० स्मृतौ विद्यास्थानत्वोक्तेस्तासां तथात्वम्। (Yagn. Smrt. 1.3)

purāṇanyāyamīmāṃsādharmmaśāstrāṅgamiśritāḥ। vedāḥ sthānāni vidyānāṃ dharmmasya ca caturdaśa" yā. smṛtau vidyāsthānatvoktestāsāṃ tathātvam। (Yagn. Smri. 1.3)

Summary: Purana, Nyaya, Mimamsa, Dharmashastras combined with vedangas, and vedas form the 14 vidyastanas as given in Yagnavalkya Smriti. Puranas such as Vayu Purana (1.69.78) Vishnudharmottara Purana (1.74.32) refer to these abodes of knowledge as 14 vidyas as does the Mahabharata (Shanti Parva 12.122.31 and Asvamedhika Parva 14.116.15) given in the famous sloka below

अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः । पुराणं धमर्शास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुदर्श ॥

aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ । purāṇaṃ dhamarśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścatudarśa ॥

अष्टादशविद्याः ॥ Ashtadasha Vidyas

However, Vishnupurana enumerates the existence of 18 vidyasthanas by adding Ayurveda (आयुर्वेदः), Dhanurveda (धनुर्वेदः), Gandharvaveda (गान्धर्ववेदः) and Arthashastra (अर्थशास्त्रम्) (four Upavedas) to the previously explained 14 vidyasthanas as given in the following shlokas.

अङ्गानि वेदाश्चत्वारो मीमांसा न्यायविस्तरः। पुराणं धर्मशास्त्रं च विद्या ह्येताश्चतुर्दश ॥ २८ ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)

aṅgāni vedāścatvāro mīmāṃsā nyāyavistaraḥ। purāṇaṃ dharmaśāstraṃ ca vidyā hyetāścaturdaśa ॥ 28 ॥ (Vish. Pura. 3.6.28)

आयुर्वेदो धनुर्वेदो गान्धर्वश्चेत्यनुक्रमात् । अर्थशास्त्रं परं तस्मात् विद्या ह्यष्टादश स्मृताः ।। २९ ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)

āyurvedo dhanurvedo gāndharvaścetyanukramāt । arthaśāstraṃ paraṃ tasmāt vidyā hyaṣṭādaśa smṛtāḥ ।। 29 ।। (Vish. Pura. 3.6.29)

Bhavishya Purana (Brahma Parva 1.2.6) also describes the 14 Vidyas and 18 vidyas as given above.

Vidyas in Vedanta

A considerable portion of the major Upanishads is devoted to the Upasanas or meditative exercises which are called Vidyas. A good number of these Vidyas in the sense of in-depth higher level of learning are discussed in all the 12 Mukhya Upanishads (three of them more important Upanishads namely, Chandogya, Brhdaranyaka and Taittriya Upanishads) and in the Vedanta Sutras or Brahmasutras. The Upanishads mention them in different places while in the Vedanta Sutras, Adhyaya 3, Pada 3 takes them up together and discusses them. Practice of these Vidyas have been seen in relation to yajnas and some of them yield Kamyaphala (fruits of yajna) as have been given in Sutra 3.3.60. Hence some of these Vidyas are also called Kamya Vidyas. Shri Adi Shankaracharya in his bhasyas interprets these Vidyas as practical exercises of meditation. Also called as Brahmavidya, 32 such Vidyas have been given.

• Ishvaravidya (ईश्वरविद्या)
• Paramapurushavidya (परमपुरुशविद्या)
• Sad Vidya (सद्विद्या)
• Anandamaya Vidya (आनन्दमयविद्या)
• Paramajyoti Vidya ()
• Sandilya Vidya
• Paryanka Vidya
• Uddalaka Vidya
• Aksaraksara Vidya
• Bhumavidya (भूमविद्या)
• Gargi Akshara Vidya
• Satyakama Vidya
• Daharavidya (दहरविद्या)
• Angushtamatra Vidya
• Jyotishamjyoti Vidya
• Maitreyi Vidya
• Gayatri Vidya
• Ushasti Kahola Vidya
• Antaradityavidya or Adityavidya (आदित्यविद्या)
• Upakosala Vidya
• Madhuvidya (मधुविद्या)
• BalakiVidya ()
• Akash Vidya (अक्षिविद्या)
• Pranavidya (प्राणविद्या)
• Pratardanavidya (प्रतर्दनविद्या)
• Nachiketavidya (नचिकेतविद्या)
• Vaisvanara Vidya
• Samvarga Vidya
• Panchagnividya (पञ्चाग्निविद्या)
• Akshi Vidya
• Bhrugu Varuni Vidya
• Srimannyasa Vidya

Udgita and Purushavidya (पुरुषविद्या) are two others that have been described.

विद्याविषयाः ॥ Subject Matter of Vidya

Chaturdasha Vidyastanas which included the Vedas and their Vedangas were the chief subjects during the earliest times. Vidya (knowledge), pertaining to a single knowledge system (Brahmavidya etc) of the olden days gradually got absorbed into Vedanta system, a broader heading covering all such specialized topics. Gradually as studying vedas required more understanding, the study of Shad Vedangas became important. It is to be noted that the subjects explaining the Vedas themselves gained more significance and subsequently were studied independent of the Vedas themselves. Some of the Vedangas such as Shiksha, Vyakarana, Jyotisha, became highly specialized by themselves and needed years of study excluding the Vedic studies.

Vidya (education) then came to represent concept based knowledge systems of Shastras of all kinds in the more recent millenia. The Shad Vedangas, Shad Darshanas and Upavedas gave rise to many subjects such as Ganita (Mathematics), Nyaya (Judicial system) and Nyaya (Logic). Ayurveda ramified into specializations such as Shastrachikitsa (Surgery) and Kayachikitsa (General Medicine), Rasayana shastra dealt with chemistry, Bhoutika shastra included physics. The knowledge of alloys, metallurgy, geology, botany sciences, warfare, architecture, large scale constructions, all such topics developed over a period of time into professional subjects.

In the following section we reflect on the how the Prachina Shikshana Vidhana or Ancient Education System evolved with defined goals and principles in line with Sanatana Dharma.

विद्यायाः प्रयोजनम् ॥ Goals of Education

We see in the cultures of ancient Greece and Europe that the ideal of personal culture loomed large in the educational system. Ancient Indian system, however, focused on the fact that an individual exists more for society than otherwise. From a very young age, a child is groomed into the socio-cultural fabric of the society with less emphasis on personal subjects such as music, painting and fine arts which were not taken as mainstream education topics. Education was also not dominated by the military ideal hence it was not part of the mainstream topics.

Jesuitical education aimed at creating an army of faithful and resolute servants of the Catholic church, the goal of which was to establish missionaries and spread the religion. It may be clarified that Ancient Indian system of education colonially projected to be tainted with lines such as "Brahmanas controlled education", was never so narrow in aim, for the youth they trained often were not subservient unquestioning blind followers but often questioned the traditional beliefs and sought for the rationale in the system. Many new theories of Indian knowledge systems, and siddhantas of subjects stand proud witness to the fact that Indian education always promoted dynamic dharmik thought processes. Prabhakara Guru's school of Mimamsa developed as he believed in perspectives different from those of Kumarila Bhatta's Mimamsa theories and convincingly articulated them. The Vedic shakas themselves arose due to slight differences in pronunciation or arrangement of mantras which were preserved by the particular group of people. It is clear that no other nation had so many original, ingenious ideas, concepts and supporting explanations (vadas) as seen in the land of Bharatavarsha for a vast majority of subjects of study.

Ancients believed that education was primarily for piety and wisdom, virtue, manners and learning for a useful profession. The more recent education system of the Industrial Revolution age laid emphasis on building a robotic skilled worker, creating a mechanical workforce, working skillfully, justly in both public and private enterprises. Standardization and automatisation has further brought down creative thinking and ingenuity. However, our ancients gave more importance to personal capabilities and held that not all people are versatile in a particular skillset and thus differentiation of functions and training was enforced for different classes of people performing various duties.

Nations such as America which had a relatively recent national culture stressed on moral character and social efficiency (personal development) and not mere erudition and culture as the important goals of education system. Indian system had achieved these two (character and social efficiency) characteristics and hence sought to preserve the qualities by enforcing the cultural preservation.

Social fabric was well-knit in our ancient society system (Varna System) and different classes of people complemented each other in bringing about social efficiency. Thus ancient Indian education provided education to each class, suitable for its own needs and family traditions, without repressing talent, unlike the Soviet nations' system of education which directed education to bring about equality in the society by upliftment of the weaker sections. Modern education system in India brought in by the English Colonial rulers is dominated by the aim of passing examinations with highest honours; an aim which was practically non-existent in ancient India.

With this significant background about the ancient education system of India, we now look into that unique Guru-shisya parampara maintained by the Gurukula system of education, which has shaped Bharat's young minds from ages and the need to continue the system even in the present day. In the following section we discuss the qualities of the Guru and shishya who are the primary persons of the Gurukula system. 

Preceptors of Education

Sanatana Dharma has held a high regard for the preceptors, the seers who imparted knowledge and were founders of a lineage of students. Whether living in recluse in forests or in cities or Gurukulas, shaping the future generations had always rested on the shoulders of Gurus and Acharyas. In this section we discuss the most common yet significant terms used in Sanatana Dharma regarding those who impart and seek knowledge and the associated samskaras. It is unfortunate that such sacred terms such as Guru are loosely used in society in the present days.

आचार्यः ॥ Acharya

An Acharya is one who follows what he preaches. A brief compilation of various definitions of Acharya from different texts are given below.

Taittriya Upanishad

वेदमनूच्याचार्योऽन्तेवासिनमनुशास्ति - सत्यं वद , धर्मं चर ... (Tait. Upan. Shiks. 11.1)

Having taught the Vedas to the student, the preceptor Acharya imparts the Samavartana or end of education instructions to disciples (Antevasin). It is implied that a disciple who has studied the Veda, should not leave his Acharya's house without inquiring into the scriptural duties. (Page 265-266 of Reference ). Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana

वृद्धा ह्यलोलुपाश्चैव आत्मवन्तो ह्यदम्भकाः। सम्यग्विनीता ऋजवस्तानाचार्यान् प्रचक्षते ।। ५९.२९ ।।

आचिनोति च शास्त्रार्थम् आचारे स्थापयत्यपि । स्वयमाचरते यस्मात् आचार्यस्तेन चोच्यते ॥  (Vayu. Pura. 59. 29-30)

The summary of the Vayu Purana and Brahmanda Purana (Brah. Pura. 1.2.32.31) slokas are as follows

They call these persons Acharyas - wise men devoid of greediness, who are self-possessed and devoid of arrogance, straight-forward and who are educated and self disciplined.

An acharya is one who fully understands the conclusions of the various scriptures and practices it (Dharma). He who establishes the code of conduct and puts together (to master and practice) the various texts - such a person is called Acharya.

Manusmrti

उपनीय तु यः शिष्यं वेदमध्यापयेद्द्विजः । साङ्गं सरहस्यं च तमाचार्यं प्रचक्षते ॥ (Manu. Smrti 2.140)

Manu describes Acharya as one who performs Upanayana samskara of his student and teaches him the Vedas along with the Upangas.

उपाध्यायः ॥ Upadhyaya

Manu defines Upadhyaya as follows

एकदेशं तु वेदस्य वेदाङ्गान्यपि वा पुनः । योऽध्यापयति वृत्त्यर्थमुपाध्यायः स उच्यते ॥ २.१४१ (Manu. Smrti 2.141)

Upadhyaya is one who imparts the knowledge of Vedas and Vedangas as a profession (वृत्त्यर्थम्) to the student.

गुरुः ॥ Guru

Manu defines a Guru (गुरुः) as follows

निषेकादीनि कर्माणि यः करोति यथाविधि । सम्भावयति चान्नेन स विप्रो गुरुरुच्यते ॥ २.१४२ ॥ (Manu. Smrti 2.142)

That Brahmana who prescribes Garbhadana and other samskaras according to the procedures in the shastras to the parents (meaning samskaras starting from the conception of the child) and nourishes by providing food (meaning helps in raising the child) - he is called a Guru. As per Medatithi and Mitaksarakara, Manu intends Guru to mean the father himself. (Reference Prof. J. S. R. Prasad in BVP Forum)

Receptors of Education

The recipient of education from a Guru or Acharya is called a shishya, an antevasi etc.

ब्रह्मचारी ॥ Brahmachari

Manu (2.174 and 175) broadly defines a Brahmachari as follows.

यद्यस्य विहितं चर्म यत् सूत्रं या च मेखला । यो दण्डो यच्च वसनं तत्तदस्य व्रतेष्वपि ॥

सेवेतेमांस्तु नियमान् ब्रह्मचारी गुरौ वसन् । सन्नियम्येन्द्रियग्रामं तपोवृद्ध्यर्थमात्मनः ॥

After upanayana the child undertakes the (brahmacharya) vrata and learns veda according to the injunctions laid down. Only that person who has during the upanayana worn the skin (चर्म), the girdle (मेखला), the sutra (सूत्रं yajnopaveeta) and staff (दण्डः) undertakes the vrata. Following the niyamas a brahmachari resides along with the Guru and increases his tapas by controlling his senses.

Such a child is said to have been initiated into Brahmacharyashrama with a chief goal of shastra adhyayana and has to follow the rules laid down for them.

Shabdakalpadruma defines brahmachari as

ब्रह्म ज्ञानं तपो वा आचरति अर्जयत्यवश्यम्। उपनयनानन्तरं नियमं कृत्वा गुरोः सन्निधौस्थित्वा साङ्गवेदाध्ययनं करोति यः । स द्बिविधः उपकुर्व्वाणः नैष्ठिकश्च । प्रथमाश्रमी ।

One who practices and definitely earns Brahma jnana and tapas. After Upanayana one who undertakes to follow the set of rules (laid down for a brahmachari) and learns vedas (sanga meaning along with the Vedangas) by residing near a Guru is a brahmachari. He is of two types : Upakurvana and Naishtika. He is one who belongs to the First Ashrama (Brahmacharya is the first among the four ashramas).

ब्रह्म वेदस्तदध्ययनार्थं यद्व्रतं तदपि ब्रह्मतच्चरतीति ब्रह्मचारी ।

Clarifying further about Brahma (ब्रह्म) here it means Veda i.e., one who is engaged in the study of vedas is a brahmachari.

अन्तेवासी ॥ Antevasi

Vachaspatyam defines Antevasi as अन्ते निकटे विद्याग्रहणाय वसति। one who resides at near the Guru for learning Vidya.

According to Amarakosha a Shishya (शिष्यः) and Chatra (छात्रः) are synonyms for Antevasi (छात्रान्तेवासिशिष्यान्तेषद एकार्थता इमे ॥ as per Jatadhara).

शिष्यलक्षणम् ॥ Shishya Lakshanam

The qualities of a shishya include the following

वाङ्मनः कायवसुभिर्गुरुशुश्रूषणे रतः । एतादृशगुणोपेतः शिष्यो भवति नारद ॥

देवताचार्य्यशुश्रूषां मनोवाक्कायकर्म्मभिः । शुद्धभावो महोत्साहो बोद्धा शिष्य इति स्मृतः ॥ इति दीक्षातत्त्वम् ॥

शान्तो विनीतः शुद्धात्मा श्रद्धावान् धारणक्षमः ।समर्थश्च कुलीनश्च प्राज्ञः मच्चरितो व्रती । एवमादिगुणैर्युक्तः शिष्यो भवति नान्यथा ॥

स्नातकः ॥ Snataka

वेदाध्ययनानन्तरं गार्हस्थ्याय कृतसमावर्त्तनांङ्गस्नाने गृहस्थभेदे तच्च व्रतं मिता।

It refers to one who, after having completed the study of Vedas, for entering the Grhasthashrama, has performed the rite of Samavartana which is an abulation that indicates the graduation from brahmacharya to grhastha.

A snataka has certain

Samskaras associated with Education

Upanayana

Samavartana

Aksharabhyasa

Vidyarambha

Terms related to Study

Svadhyaya

In ancient times (and to a limited extent even today), different families studied a specific set of scriptures from the entire corpus of Hindu sacred literature. For example, a family belonging to the Deshastha Brahmana community in Maharashtra (India) could chant a specific group of 10 scriptures related to the Rigveda (the Rigveda Samhitā, Aitareya Brāhmaṇa, Aitareya Āraṇyaka, Aitareya Upanishad, Āshvalāyana Shrauta Sūtra, Āshvalāyana Grhya Sūtra, Panini’s Așhtādhyāyī, Pingala’s Chhandasūtra, Yāska’s Nirukta and Kātyāyana’s Sarvānukramaṇī) during their lifelong study of scriptures. This same set of scriptures was studied by the members of the family as their primary focus generation after generation and constituted their traditional scriptural study or Svādhyāya. In this form of study too, the focus is on the recitation of the sacred texts, and not necessarily on their meaning.

Adhyayana

It includes the study of scriptures in general to imbibe their teachings, and reflect upon their meaning. There may or may not be any chanting involved. The student may study them privately, or under the guidance of a Guru.

विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि ॥ Vidyarthi's Qualities

Ancient seers emphasized on the importance of habits, routine, imitation and association to secure ready cooperation of the shishya towards education. At a young impressionable age a child can be molded to develop the required vidyarthi's qualities (विद्यातुराणां लक्षणानि) and such habits constitute a second nature in adulthood.

Importance of Habits

Rules of discipline, prescribed during formative years, are often laid down for forming good and valuable habits (preventive action) more than for the purpose of prohibiting him from doing undesirable acts (corrective actions). Preparing for the hard life and long struggles before him, rules are laid down, calculated to develop them into strong men with determination and great enduring power.

Importance of Routine

Routine also played an important role in the pliable age which aided in the formation of good habits and master their subjects by the end of their course. It was made interesting and engaging for children so that compliance is easily achieved. Recitation of the slokas and group recitation by several children was for motivating the children and secure their cooperation. Different ways of routine for example was

• Students of primary and secondary education (the first few years of education) went through the routine of daily recitation and memorization practice. This would enable them to master their subject matter.
• Students of poetics and literature were engaged in practicing composition and building slokas.
• Students of subjects like Vyakarana engaged in memorizing the sutras daily.
• Students of astronomy were engaged in daily observations and mathematical calculations.
• Students of Vedas were engaged in daily practice of yajnas.
• Students of sculpture and painting engaged in regular long hours of practice.

Association and Imitation

Association and imitation played a great part in moulding the character and improving the calibre of a student. Even a dull student will improve his intellect if he is close association with a brilliant boy and imitates his methods of study. He we remember the following advise from Mahabharata about association with people of bad character

बुद्धिश्च हीयते पुंसां नीचैः सह समागमात् । मध्यमैर्मध्यतां याति श्रेष्ठतां याति चोत्तमैः॥ (Maha. Vana. 1.30)

Summary : The intellect of a person when associated with bad company becomes bad, while when associated with middle kind of people brings in the middle state but when associated with intellectually higher standard of people, brings in greater growth.

Imitation and copying a good student was promoted and it helped in bringing up a student of lesser intellect. Many subhashitas declare that association with good people elevates a person while bad association only brings his downfall. One should be very careful in choosing one's company.