Changes

Plants and human beings have an intimate relationship and it is well recognized since ancient times. Science in general and plant science in particular is an integral part of the Vēdas. Plants give oxygen, food and medicines to human beings and hence have to be protected at all times. References to the cultivation of cereals, such as wheat, barley, rice and ragi in the Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas-Upanishads bear ample testimony to the importance of plants as food and the development of agriculture in the Vedic times. Vedic seers were well known for their reverence to nature and natural forces and their eco-centric lifestyle is evident in the mantras of Rigveda. Yajna being the subject matter of the Vedas, there is no ritualistic activity in yajnas without the usage of a plant product.<ref name=":3">Boddupalli, R. S. (2021). Traditional knowledge of botany and agriculture revealed in the Vēda Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇās, Araṇyakās and Upaniṣads. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge'', ''20''(1), 284–297.</ref>

Plants and human beings have an intimate relationship and it is well recognized since ancient times. Science in general and plant science in particular is an integral part of the Vēdas. Plants give oxygen, food and medicines to human beings and hence have to be protected at all times. References to the cultivation of cereals, such as wheat, barley, rice and ragi in the Samhitas, Brahmanas and Aranyakas-Upanishads bear ample testimony to the importance of plants as food and the development of agriculture in the Vedic times. Vedic seers were well known for their reverence to nature and natural forces and their eco-centric lifestyle is evident in the mantras of Rigveda. Yajna being the subject matter of the Vedas, there is no ritualistic activity in yajnas without the usage of a plant product.<ref name=":3">Boddupalli, R. S. (2021). Traditional knowledge of botany and agriculture revealed in the Vēda Saṃhitās, Brāhmaṇās, Araṇyakās and Upaniṣads. ''Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge'', ''20''(1), 284–297.</ref>

==Introduction==

==परिचयः ॥ Introduction==

Vrksha or tree is the symbol of life and growth. It stands for eternity and selfless well-being. [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The four vedas]], describe many herbs, vines, shrubs and tree species used in [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajnas]]. Vajasaneya Samhita advocates reverence and devotion to trees and grains, medicinal herbs, forests, and vegetation; they are regarded as deities or devatas who are bestowed with the quality of selfless giving.<ref name=":4">Boddupalli, R. S. (2019). Project Report: Plant Biology of Yajurveda. ''Indian Journal of History of Science'', ''54''(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.16943/ijhs/2019/v54i2/49668</nowiki></ref>

Vrksha or tree is the symbol of life and growth. It stands for eternity and selfless well-being. [[The Four Vedas (चतुर्वेदाः)|The four vedas]], describe many herbs, vines, shrubs and tree species used in [[Yajna (यज्ञः)|yajnas]]. Vajasaneya Samhita advocates reverence and devotion to trees and grains, medicinal herbs, forests, and vegetation; they are regarded as deities or devatas who are bestowed with the quality of selfless giving.<ref name=":4">Boddupalli, R. S. (2019). Project Report: Plant Biology of Yajurveda. ''Indian Journal of History of Science'', ''54''(2). <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.16943/ijhs/2019/v54i2/49668</nowiki></ref>

# Sahitya - <ref>Sengupta, A. (2017). Samskrit sahitya mein vanaspati vijnan. ''International Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology'', ''3''(8), 1257–1264. <nowiki>https://www.ijsrset.com</nowiki></ref>

# Sahitya - <ref>Sengupta, A. (2017). Samskrit sahitya mein vanaspati vijnan. ''International Journal of Scientific Research in Science, Engineering and Technology'', ''3''(8), 1257–1264. <nowiki>https://www.ijsrset.com</nowiki></ref>

==Etymology==

==व्युत्पत्तिः ॥ Etymology==

Shabdakalpadruma<ref name=":0">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7</ref> mentions that the root word for वृक्षः (Vrksha) is व्रश्च used in the sense of छेदने, to cut. Amarakosha<ref name=":0" /> gives a few synonyms of trees depicting their characteristics.<blockquote>वृक्षो महीरुहः शाखी विटपी पादपस्तरुः । अनोकहः कुटः शालः पलाशी द्रुद्रुमागमाः ॥ vṛkṣo mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapastaruḥ | anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ palāśī drudrumāgamāḥ || (Amara. 2.4.5)

Shabdakalpadruma<ref name=":0">https://ashtadhyayi.com/kosha?search=%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7</ref> mentions that the root word for वृक्षः (Vrksha) is व्रश्च used in the sense of छेदने, to cut. Amarakosha<ref name=":0" /> gives a few synonyms of trees depicting their characteristics.<blockquote>वृक्षो महीरुहः शाखी विटपी पादपस्तरुः । अनोकहः कुटः शालः पलाशी द्रुद्रुमागमाः ॥ vṛkṣo mahīruhaḥ śākhī viṭapī pādapastaruḥ | anokahaḥ kuṭaḥ śālaḥ palāśī drudrumāgamāḥ || (Amara. 2.4.5)

“The wind and the heat inside the tree help it to digest the water that it takes in from its roots. Complete assimilation of the food gives it glossiness and it grows well.”

“The wind and the heat inside the tree help it to digest the water that it takes in from its roots. Complete assimilation of the food gives it glossiness and it grows well.”

== स्थावराणां लक्षणम् ॥ Plant Characteristics ==

== स्थावराणां लक्षणम् ॥ Plant Characteristics ==

Along with reverence, in Indian traditions plants were regarded as life force or prana and not inanimate or lifeless things; they have life even if they are immobile. Like any animate creature, they are sensitive to cold and heat, they feel happiness and sorrow, they drink water from their roots and also fall sick, etc.  

Along with reverence, in Indian traditions plants were regarded as life force or prana and not inanimate or lifeless things; they have life even if they are immobile. Like any animate creature, they are sensitive to cold and heat, they feel happiness and sorrow, they drink water from their roots and also fall sick, etc.  

# उत्स्रोतसः - ऊर्द्ध्वं स्रोत आहारसञ्चारो येषां ते । the process of uptake of food from below (from the ground) through upward channels  

# उत्स्रोतसः - ऊर्द्ध्वं स्रोत आहारसञ्चारो येषां ते । the process of uptake of food from below (from the ground) through upward channels  

# तमःप्रायाः - अव्यक्तचैतन्याः । dormancy of consciousness, 

# तमःप्रायाः - अव्यक्तचैतन्याः । dormancy of consciousness due to [[Tamas (तमः)|tamas]] guna

# अन्तःस्पर्शाः - स्पर्शमेव जानन्ति नान्यत्तदापि अन्तरेव न बहिः । have an inner feeling  

# अन्तःस्पर्शाः - स्पर्शमेव जानन्ति नान्यत्तदापि अन्तरेव न बहिः । have an inner feeling  

# विशेषिणः - of many varieties due to 

# विशेषिणः - of many varieties

 

In Aitareya Brahmana and Koushitaki Brahamana, vanaspati or plants are termed as "Prana" because they protect mankind by giving prana-shakti or oxygen.<ref name=":6">Mishra, D. K. (2007). ''Vaidik vangmay mein Vanaspati Vijnan ka svarup''. 2nd World Congress on Vedic Sciences.</ref><ref>Dvivedi, K. D. (2000). ''Vedon men Vijnana: Positive Sciences in the Vedas'' (2nd ed.). Vishvabharati Anusandhan Parishad.</ref>

प्राणो वनस्पतिः । prāṇo vanaspatiḥ | (Kous. Brah. 12.7)<ref>Koushitaki Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref></blockquote>In Atharvaveda (8.7.6-10)<ref name=":7" /> जीवलां नघारिषां जीवन्तीमोषधीमहम् ।... plants characteristics are given based on their qualities<ref name=":12" />

वनस्पतिं यजति प्राणो वै वनस्पतिः प्राणमेव तत्प्रीणाति प्राणं यजमाने दधाति..(Aite. Brah. 2.4)<ref>Aitareya Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%90%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A5%A8_(%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%9E%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE) Panchika 2])</ref>

# प्रचेतस ॥ one that gives chetana (life force)

प्राणो वनस्पतिः । (Kous. Brah. 12.7)<ref>Koushitaki Brahmana ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B9%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A7%E0%A5%A8 Adhyaya 12])</ref>

प्रदूषनिवारकाः ॥ one that prevents pollution - Yajuveda mentions that plants prevent pollution and hence are called शमिता (शमनकर्ता)<ref name=":6" /><blockquote>वनस्पतिः शमिता देवोऽ अग्निः स्वदन्तु हव्यं मधुना घृतेन ॥ vanaspatiḥ śamitā devo’ agniḥ svadantu havyaṃ madhunā ghṛtena || (Shuk. Yaju. 29.35)<ref>Shukla Yajurveda ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%83/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%A7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A8%E0%A5%AF Adhyaya 29])</ref></blockquote>

== Morphological Characteristics <ref>Kachare, S. V., & Suryawanshi, S. R. (2010). HISTORY OF PLANT CLASSIFICATION IN ANCIENT INDIAN SCIENCE. ''International Journal of Current Research'', ''8'', 056–059. <nowiki>http://www.journalcra.com</nowiki></ref>==

== Plant Parts and Habitat==

==== Plant Parts ====

==== Plant Parts ====

Taittriya samhita identifies the parts of the plants as given below<blockquote>ओषधीभ्यः स्वाहा मूलेभ्यः स्वाहा तूलेभ्यः स्वाहा काण्डेभ्यः स्वाहा वल्शेभ्यः स्वाहा पुष्पेभ्यः स्वाहा फलेभ्यः स्वाहा गृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अगृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अवपन्नेभ्यः स्वाहा शयानेभ्यः स्वाहा सर्वस्मै स्वाहा ॥ (Taittiriya Samhita 7.3.19)<ref>Taittriya Samhita ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Kanda 7 Prapathaka 3])</ref></blockquote>Meaning: To the plants hail! To the roots hail! To the panicles hail! To the joints hail! To the twigs hail! To the flowers hail! To the fruits hail! To those that are used hail! To those that are not used hail! To those that have fallen off hail! To those that are lying (on the ground) hail! To all hail!<ref name=":8" /><blockquote>मधुमन् मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन् मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव । मधुमत्पर्णं मधुमत्पुष्पमासां मधोः सम्भक्ता अमृतस्य भक्षो घृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुरोगवम् ॥१२॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.12)<ref name=":7" />

Taittriya samhita identifies the parts of the plants as given below<blockquote>ओषधीभ्यः स्वाहा मूलेभ्यः स्वाहा तूलेभ्यः स्वाहा काण्डेभ्यः स्वाहा वल्शेभ्यः स्वाहा पुष्पेभ्यः स्वाहा फलेभ्यः स्वाहा गृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अगृहीतेभ्यः स्वाहा । अवपन्नेभ्यः स्वाहा शयानेभ्यः स्वाहा सर्वस्मै स्वाहा ॥ (Taittiriya Samhita 7.3.19)<ref>Taittriya Samhita ([https://sa.wikisource.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE(%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%83)/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A5%AD/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A0%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%83_%E0%A5%A9 Kanda 7 Prapathaka 3])</ref></blockquote>Meaning: To the plants hail! To the roots hail! To the panicles hail! To the joints hail! To the twigs hail! To the flowers hail! To the fruits hail! To those that are used hail! To those that are not used hail! To those that have fallen off hail! To those that are lying (on the ground) hail! To all hail!<ref name=":8" /> Trees have skanda or crown, having more number of leaves compared to herbaceous plants.<ref name=":3" /><blockquote>मधुमन् मूलं मधुमदग्रमासां मधुमन् मध्यं वीरुधां बभूव । मधुमत्पर्णं मधुमत्पुष्पमासां मधोः सम्भक्ता अमृतस्य भक्षो घृतमन्नं दुह्रतां गोपुरोगवम् ॥१२॥ (Atha. Veda. 8.7.12)<ref name=":7" />

madhuman mūlaṃ madhumadagramāsāṃ madhuman madhyaṃ vīrudhāṃ babhūva | madhumatparṇaṃ madhumatpuṣpamāsāṃ madhoḥ sambhaktā amṛtasya bhakṣo ghṛtamannaṃ duhratāṃ gopurogavam ||12||</blockquote>In Atharvaveda (8.7.12) we find plant parts as follows<ref name=":3" />

madhuman mūlaṃ madhumadagramāsāṃ madhuman madhyaṃ vīrudhāṃ babhūva | madhumatparṇaṃ madhumatpuṣpamāsāṃ madhoḥ sambhaktā amṛtasya bhakṣo ghṛtamannaṃ duhratāṃ gopurogavam ||12||</blockquote>In Atharvaveda (8.7.12) we find plant parts as follows<ref name=":3" />

All these parts are Amṛtasya–Sweet in content

All these parts are Amṛtasya–Sweet in content

==== Growth Habitats ====

==== Growth Habitats ====

# Prastr̥ṇatī– Short plants, spreading in all directions.

# Prastr̥ṇatī– Short plants, spreading in all directions.

# Sthambinī – Plants with moderate height and profusely branching.

# Sthambinī – Plants with moderate height and profusely branching, bushy

# Ēkaśṛnga – Plants with monopodial branches.

# Ēkaśṛnga – Plants with single sheath or monopodial branches

# Pratanvatī – Creeping or prostrate plants.

# Pratanvatī – Creeping or prostrate plants.

# Ōṣadhī – Medicinal annual herb.

# Ōṣadhī – Medicinal annual herb.

# tṛṇa (grasses)

# tṛṇa (grasses)

# pratānā (plants with tendrils)

# pratānā (plants with tendrils)

# vally (creepers twinning around a tree)

# valli (creepers twinning around a tree)

==== Classification of Plants ====

== Classification of Plants ==

{| class="wikitable"

{| class="wikitable"

|+Table 2:  Classification of Plants in Indian Treatises

|+Table 2:  Classification of Plants in Indian Treatises